Pycnogenol®
(French
Maritime Pine Bark Extract)
Pinus
pinaster Aiton subsp. atlantica
[Fam. Pinaceae]
Overview
French
maritime pine bark extract, sold under the trade name Pycnogenol®
(manufactured by Horphag Research, Geneva, Switzerland) was ranked 15th among
the top-selling herbal dietary supplements in the U.S. in mainstream retail
outlets (food, drug, and mass market stores) with total sales in this channel
of trade exceeding $3 million in 2000 (Blumenthal, 2001). Sales in natural food
store, multi-level marketing, and mail order channels are presumably much
higher, but accurate statistics for aggregate sales in these markets are not
available. Traditionally, North American pine bark has been used by Native
American Indians to treat colds and rheumatism, and for wound healing (Moerman,
1998; Chandler et al., 1979).
Recent
research suggests significant antioxidant activity for this extract, based
primarily on its proanthocyanidin content. Currently, Pycnogenol® is
used primarily to help prevent edema formation of the lower legs (Gulati, 1999)
and capillary bleeding, especially in cases of retinopathy (Spadea and
Balestrazzi, 2001). Pycnogenol® has been shown to prevent platelet
aggregation in smokers (Pütter et al.,
1999) and in cardiovascular patients (Wang et
al., 1999). It has been used in reducing pain associated with menstrual
disorders (Kohama and Suzuki, 1999) and has demonstrated improved lung function
and symptom scores in asthmatics (Hosseini et
al., 2001b), normalized blood pressure in mild hypertensives (Hosseini et al., 2001a), and improved symptoms in
patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) (Stefanescu et al., 2001).
Description
French
maritime pine bark extract is made by extraction of the outer bark of Pinus pinaster Ait. subsp. atlantica. The French subspecies atlantica of P. pinaster differs from the Iberian (Spanish) and Moroccan
subspecies by its resistance against salt (Saur et al., 1993) and in the profile of its phytochemical constituents
(Bahrman et al., 1994).
The fresh bark
is powdered and extracted with ethanol and water in patented equipment allowing
an automated continuous process (Rohdewald, 2002). After purification of the
raw extract, the aqueous solution of the extracted constituents is spray-dried.
The resulting fine brownish powder is stable if stored in a dry, dark
environment. The extract is standardized to a procyanidin content of 70 5%,
primarily catechins and epicatechins.
Primary Uses
Cardiovascular
Venous
insufficiency, chronic (Arcangeli, 2000; Petrassi et al., 2000; Schmidtke and Schoop, 1995; Sirnelli-Walter and
Weil-Masson, 1988; Doucet et al.,
1987; Schmidtke and Schoop, 1984; Feine-Haake, 1975)
Other Potential Uses
Abdominal
and menstrual pain (Kohama and
Suzuki, 1999)
Asthma
(Hosseini et al., 2001b)
Endometriosis
(Kohama and Suzuki, 1999)
Enhanced
sperm quality in case of man diagnosed with malformed sperm (Roseff and Gulati,
1999)
Mild
hypertension (Hosseini et al., 2001a)
Prevention
of platelet aggregation (Pütter et al.,
1999)
Retinal
disorder, vascular (Spadea and
Balestrazzi, 2001)
Retinopathy,
diabetic (Magnard et al., 1970)
Systemic
lupus erythematusus (SLE), second line therapy (Stefanescu et al., 2001)
Dosage
For
prevention and treatment of chronic venous disorders: daily doses ranging from
100–300 mg per day were effective in controlled clinical trials (Gulati, 1999).
For
prevention and treatment of retinal vascular disorders: doses from 40–150 mg
have been used in clinical trials (Spadea and Balestrazzi, 2001; Magnard et al., 1970).
For
treatment of endometriosis and menstrual disorders: 30–60 mg have been found to
be effective (Kohama and Suzuki,
1999).
To
normalize platelet function doses of 150–200 mg are needed (Pütter et al., 1999).
To
normalize blood pressure 200 mg were given (Hosseini et al., 2001a).
To
reduce asthma symptoms, 1 mg/lb body weight were taken (Hosseini et al., 2001b).
Duration of Administration
Clinical
experience demonstrated that beneficial effects can be substantiated after 4
weeks of treatment with Pycnogenol® in cases of chronic venous
disorders and retinal vascular disorders. However, results improved significantly
when the treatment period was extended to 2 months (Gulati, 1999).
Blood pressure
in mild hypertensive patients was normalized following treatment period of 8
weeks (Hosseini et al., 2001a).
For prevention
of menstrual disorders treatment periods will vary from individual to
individual; however, one study noted beneficial effects after 14–30 days
(Kohama and Suzuki, 1999).
Asthma
symptoms were improved after 4 weeks treatment (Hosseini et al., 2001b).
For
improvement of sperm quality, treatment period was 9 months (Roseff and Gulati,
1999).
Continuous
intake of Pycnogenol® as a dietary supplement can be recommended to
protect the cardiovascular system from the development of atherosclerosis and
thrombus formation in moderate doses from 50–100 mg. (This effect is the result
of Pycnogenol®’s ability to normalize platelet aggregation and
thromboxane levels, to antagonize vasoconstriction induced by adrenaline, to
inactivate free radicals, and the anti-oxidative effect influencing the
oxidation of lipids.)
Chemistry
Pycnogenol®
is prepared from the bark of French maritime pine trees (P. pinaster) by a standardized process. The trees are cultivated as
a monoculture exclusively in one narrow area in Southwest
France and the bark is harvested from 30-year old trees;
therefore, chemical studies indicate that there is little variation in the
composition of the extract over the years.
French
maritime pine bark extract contains procyanidins, catechin, epicatechin,
taxifolin, phenolic acids, and glucosides or glucose esters of its
constituents.
Procyanidins
The
procyanidins consist of units of catechin and epicatechin. The chain length of
the procyanidins in Pycnogenol® range from dimers up to octamers.
The dimers had been identified as the isomeric forms B1, B3, B6, and B7. A
trimer C2, consisting of catechin-epicatechin-catechin is also identified
(Rohdewald, 2002). The presence of tetramers to octamers was demonstrated by
mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) (Rohdewald, 1998). The total amount of
procyanidins in Pycnogenol® is standardized to 70 5%. Catechin,
epicatechin, and taxifolin represent the so-called “monomeric” procyanidins.
Taxifolin was found as its glycoside and in its free form (Rohdewald, 1998).
Phenolic acids
Phenolic
acids, also called fruit acids, in French maritime pine bark extract are
derivates from benzoic acid (p-hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechic acid, gallic
acid, vanillic acid) and from cinnamic acid (caffeic acid, ferulic acid,
p-cumaric acid).
Additionally,
the glucose ester of ferulic acid and p-cumaric acid were identified and the
glucoside of vanillic acid (Rohdewald, 1998).
Other constituents
Free glucose
is present in small amounts, rhamnose, xylose, and arabinose could be detected,
but not quantified. Vanillin is also found in very small quantities (Rüve,
1996).
Pharmacological Actions
Humans
Symptoms of
chronic venous insufficiency including edema of the lower legs, feeling of
heaviness in the lower legs, cramps, and pain were significantly reduced
(Arcangeli, 2000; Petrassi et al., 2000;
Schmidtke and Schoop, 1995, 1984); vision was improved in cases of retinal
vascular disorder (Spadea and Balestrazzi, 2001; Magnard et al, 1970); smoking-induced platelet aggregation was prevented
(Pütter et al., 1999); in patients
with cardiovascular diseases, platelet aggregation was reduced (Wang et al., 1999); mild hypertension was
reduced to normal (Hosseini et al.,
2001a); asthma symptoms and lung function were improved (Hosseini et al., 2001b); reduction of menstrual
cramps and pain have been reported (Kohama
and Suzuki, 1999); and malformation of human sperm have been normalized
(Roseff and Gulati, 1999).
Animal
Increased
capillary resistance (Gábor et al.,
1993); anti-inflammatory (Blazsó et al.,
1997); anti-hypertensive (Blaszó et al.,
1996); immunomodulation (Liu et al.,
1998; Cheshier et al., 1996);
improvement of cognitive function (Liu et
al., 1999); UV-protection (Blazsó et
al., 1995); spasmolytic activity of
ferulic acid on rat uterus (Ozaki and Ma, 1990).
In vitro
Radical
scavenging activity (Packer et al.,
1999; Rohdewald, 1998; Elstner and Kleber, 1990); protection of DNA (Nelson et al., 1998); increased production of
superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione (Wei et al., 1997); protection of brain cells against amyloid--protein
toxicity (Rohdewald, 1998) and glutamate-induced toxicity (Kobayashi, 2000;
Rohdewald, 1998); inhibition of adrenalin-induced platelet aggregation (Rüve,
1996); inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) (Blaszó et al., 1996); inhibition of
adrenalin-induced vasoconstriction (Fitzpatrick et al., 1998); UV-protection (Guochang, 1993); apoptosis of human
mammary cancer cells (Huynh and Teel, 2000); and spasmolytic action of
constituents of Pycnogenol®, caffeic, and protocatechic acid on
smooth muscles (de Urbina et al.,
1990). Pycnogenol® has been shown to exhibit anticalgranulin
activity in human keratinocytes (in vitro),
suggesting potential use for treatment of psoriasis and various dermatoses
(Rihn et al., 2001). Pycnogenol®
increases human growth hormone secretion (Buz’Zard et al., 2002).
Mechanism of Action
High
affinity to proteins (Packer et al.,
1999) decreases capillary permeability thereby reducing microbleeding and
preventing edema formation (Gabór et al.,
1993).
Stimulates
production of the endothelium-derived factor (nitric oxide, NO) causing
vasorelaxation (Fitzpatrick et al.,
1998) leading to increased microcirculation (Wang et al., 1999). Pycnogenol®, in addition to its
antioxidant activity, stimulates constitutive endothelial NO synthase activity
to increase NO levels, which could counteract the vasoconstrictor effects of
epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE) (Fitzpatrick et al., 1998). Furthermore, additional protective effects could
result from the well-established properties of NO to decrease platelet
aggregation and adhesion, as well as to inhibit low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol oxidation, all of which could protect against atherogenesis and
thrombus formation. Pycnogenol® stimulates NO production
(Fitzpatrick et al., 1998) and
inhibits thromboxane formation (Watson, 1999), both effects leading to reduced
platelet-aggregation (Pütter et al., 1999).
Antioxidant
activity is closely related to anti-inflammatory effects (Blázso et al.,
1995). [Because anti-inflammatory processes generate free radicals, the
inhibition of the superoxide radical by fractions of Pycnogenol® in vitro is closely related to the
anti-inflammatory activity of the same fractions in vivo. In addition to the inhibition of prostaglandins and leukotrienes
(Hosseini et al., 2001b), the
scavenging of free radicals is a contributing factor to an anti-inflammatory
activity].
Phenolic
acids possess spasmolytic activity on uterine muscles in vivo (Ozaki and Ma, 1990; de Urbina et al., 1990).
Contraindications
None known.
Pregnancy
and lactation: As
a general precaution, Pycnogenol® should not be taken during the
first 3 months of pregnancy. Safety pharmacology demonstrated absence of
mutagenic and teratogenic effects, no perinatal toxicity, and no negative
effects on fertility (Rohdewald, 2002).
Adverse Effects
Gastric upset,
diarrhea, constipation. To avoid these small side effects, Pycnogenol®
should be taken with meals. The average frequency of minor adverse effects
including headache and dizziness is 1.6%. Adverse effects are not related to
dose or total duration of treatment. Data are based on documentation of reports
on 2000 patients (Rohdewald, 2002).
Drug Interactions
None known.
Because of its
mechanism of action of inhibiting platelet aggregation, Pycnogenol®
should not be added to treatment with antiplatelet drugs; however, this
interaction is theoretical and has not been demonstrated in clinical
experience.
American Herbal Products
Association (AHPA) Safety Rating
There is no
listing for P. pinaster, Pycnogenol®,
or French maritime pine bark extract in
the American Herbal Products
Association’s Botanical Safety Handbook (McGuffin et al., 1997), probably due to the fact that most of the herbs
rated for safety in this volume are based on those herbs previously listed in
the AHPA Herbs of Commerce (Foster,
1992). At that time, pine bark extract was only beginning to be marketed in the
U.S.
Regulatory status
Canada: Decision pending.
France: A French maritime pine bark extract
is approved as a non-prescription herbal drug for treatment of venous
disorders.
Germany: Not reviewed by the German
Commission E (Blumenthal et al.,
1998).
Greece: Non-prescription herbal drug for
treatment and prevention of chronic venous insufficiency.
Japan: Food supplement; also approved as
cosmetic ingredient.
People’s
Republic of China & Hong Kong:
Health food.
Sweden: No pine bark extract products are
presently registered in the Medical Products Agency’s (MPA) “Authorised Natural
Remedies” listings (MPA, 2001).
Switzerland: Non-prescription herbal drug for
treatment and prevention of chronic venous insufficiency. One purified pine
bark extract product is listed in the Codex
2000/01 (Ruppanner and Schaefer, 2000).
U.K.: Food supplement. For adults only.
Not to be used by children or pregnant women (FAC, 2000; Crates, 2000). (This
is consistent with the labelling of other food supplements in the UK).
U.S.: Dietary supplement (USC, 1994).
Clinical Review
Fourteen
clinical studies are included in the following table, “Clinical Studies on
Pycnogenol® (French Maritime Pine Bark Extract).” Nine double-blind,
placebo-controlled studies (DB, PC) have been conducted on a total of 244
patients. Four DB, PC studies (Arcangeli, 2000; Petrassi et al., 2000; Schmidtke and Schoop, 1995, 1984) focused on chronic
venous insufficiency and confirmed results of three open studies with 255
patients in total (Sirnelli-Walter and Weil-Masson, 1988; Doucet et al., 1987; Feine-Haake, 1975). One
DB, PC study conducted by Spadea and Balestrazzi (2001) confirmed preliminary
findings of a previous open study (Magnard et
al., 1970) on the effects of
retinopathy. One PC study demonstrated complete inhibition of smoking-induced
platelet aggregation (Pütter et al.,
1999), and a DB, PC study with cardiovascular patients showed a significant
decrease in platelet aggregation and improved microcirculation (Wang et al.,
1999). A DB, PC, crossover (CO) study showed reduction of asthma symptoms and
improvement of lung function (Hosseini et
al., 2001b). Blood pressure of mild hypertensives was normalized in a DB,
PC, CO study (Hosseini et al.,
2001a). Pycnogenol® supplementation contributed to improvement of
symptoms of SLE in a DB, PC pilot study (Stefanescu et al., 2001).