Click here for V.2 PDF Updated Sept. 2020Adulteration of English
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) Essential Oil
By
Ezra Bejar, PhD American
Botanical Council, PO Box 144345, Austin, TX 78714 Correspondence: email
Citation
(JAMA style): Bejar E. Adulteration of English Lavender (Lavandula
angustifolia) essential oil. Botanical
Adulterants Prevention Bulletin. Austin, TX: ABC-AHP-NCNPR Botanical
Adulterants Prevention Program; 2020.
Keywords:
Adulteration,
essential oil, Lavandula angustifolia,
English lavender, lavender, common lavender, lavender essential oil, flowering
tops
Goal: The main goal of this
bulletin is to provide timely information and/or updates on issues of
adulteration and mislabeling of essential oil (EO) of English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill) in
particular with lavandin (Lavandula × intermedia Emeric ex Loisel, syn. Lavandula angustifolia Mill. × Lavandula latifolia Medik.), spike lavender (Lavandula
latifolia Medik.), linalool and linalyl acetate- rich EOs, terpenes, and
synthetic chemicals.
This bulletin may serve as a guide for quality
control personnel, the international herbal products, cosmetic, and essential
oil industries, and the extended natural products community in general. It is also
intended to present a summary of the scientific data and methods on the
occurrence of species substitution, adulteration, the market situation, and economic
and safety consequences for the consumer and the industry.
1 General Information
1.1 Common
name: English
lavender*
1.2 Other
common names:1-5†
English: Lavender, true
lavender, common lavender, garden lavender, narrow-leaved lavender Chinese: xun yi cao (薰衣草) Danish: ægte lavendel,
almindelig lavendel, lavendel Dutch: echte lavendel, smalbladige lavendel French: lavande, lavande des Alpes, lavande à feuilles
étroites, lavande fine, lavande vraie, lavande officinale German: echter Lavendel,
Lavendel Greek: levanta, lebanta (λεβάντα) Hebrew: lavender
(לבנדר) Italian: lavanda
vera, lavandula vera, lavandula spica,
spigo Norwegian: lavendel Polish: lawendel Portuguese: lavanda,
lavanda-inglesa, alfazema Russian: Лаванда узколистная (lavanda uzkolistnaya), Лаванда настоя́щая (lavanda nastoyáshchaya) Spanish: alfazema, alhucema, aljucema, espigol,
espigola, espigolina, esplego, espliego, espliego común, espliego de la hoja
angosta, espliego francés, espliego morisco,
espligo, espígola, lavanda, lavándula hembra, lavándula macho, tuma Swedish: lavendel Turkish: lavanta, tibbi lavanta 1.3 Accepted Latin binomial: Lavandula angustifolia Mill.
1.4
Synonyms: Lavandula
officinalis Chaix, L. vera DC, L. spica Loisel. L. vulgaris Lam.6-11
1.5 Botanical family: Lamiaceae
1.6 Distribution: Lavender
is a group of aromatic dwarf shrubs originally from the Mediterranean basin. The
plants thrive in rocky, calcareous areas of low-altitude mountains located
between 500-1600 m.10,12-14 English lavender grows
naturally in Italy, southern France, Spain, and northeastern Africa.10 It is now extensively cultivated in Bulgaria, China,
France, Morocco, Spain, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom. Smaller producing
countries include Algeria, Australia, Argentina, the Balkans, Brazil, England,
Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Russia, South Africa, Turkey, and
the United States.10,15,16
1.7 Botanical
description and growing range: Lavandula angustifolia is an aromatic shrub, generally
up to 50-60 cm high, although some cultivars can grow taller.17-19 The inflorescence stalk is usually
unbranched, 10–25 cm long, with a compact spike usually 4–5
cm but up to 8 cm, sometimes with a lower flower cluster distant from the
main spike. The
spike has 6–10 flowers, with shades
of blue/mauve, white, rarely violet pink in color. The peduncle is about three times
longer than the spike; pedicel 1.0–1.5 mm long; calyx 4–7 mm long, densely grey
stellate, tomentose outside, with 13 longitudinal ribs.11 Bracts broadly
ovate-rhombic to obovate, bracteoles present but minute. The leaves are
clustered on leafy shoots, but widely spaced on flowering shoots. The petiole
is very short with a linear-lanceolate to linear blade. The leaves are 17 mm
long and 2 mm wide, and 2–6 cm long and 3–6 mm wide on leafy and flowering
shoots, respectively.11
1.8 Raw material forms: According to the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO),20 and the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.),21 the essential oil of English lavender is defined as the
oil obtained by steam distillation of the flowering tops of L. angustifolia Mill., wild or cultivated, of the Lamiaceae
family. The standards favor varieties (e.g., Fine, Mailette, Munstead,
Raya, etc.) that are relatively low in camphor content22,23 and have a desirable profile
for the pharmaceutical as well as the fine perfumery trade, whereas other
varieties, including those yielding higher concentrations of camphor are
traditionally used by aromatherapists.24
The
French government established more stringent compositions and organoleptic
requirements for meeting the Appellation d’Origine Protégée (AOP) or protected
geographic origin.25 AOP essential oil guarantee requires the use of L. angustifolia species from a strictly
defined zone in four different French counties — Drôme, Vaucluse, Alpes de
Haute Provence, and Hautes Alpes, and from plants growing at an altitude of a
minimum of 800 meters.25 The lavender oil must meet organoleptic standards and each
batch is analyzed anonymously (blindly). The French National Institute of
Origins and Quality (known as the INAO) issues this certification.
The
requirements for composition and chromatographic profiles of English lavender, spike
lavender, and lavandins by gas chromatography (GC) are described by ISO
standards.26-28
The
WHO monograph of Aetheroleum Lavandulae defines lavender oil as the “essential
oil obtained by steam distillation from the fresh
flowering tops of Lavandula angustifolia
Mill. or of L. intermedia [sic] Loisel
(Lamiaceae).” In this regard, WHO differs from other authorities in
allowing for the use of lavandin as a source of lavender oil.
The
composition of English lavender essential oils and lavandins (Abrial and Grosso
varieties) are clearly defined by various authoritative organizations (see
Table 1). Nevertheless, some of the essential oils obtained from English
lavender contain a substantially different chemical profile and will not meet
any of the specifications put forward by standard-setting organizations despite
being authentic lavender oils.29
Table
1. Composition of [English] lavender and lavandin oils according to
authoritative sources (in % of the essential oil)20,21,26-28,30
|
English
lavender
|
|
Lavandin
Abrial
|
Lavandin
Grosso
|
Spike
lavender
|
Compound
|
ISOa
|
EP
|
WHO
|
ISO
|
ISO
|
ISO
|
Limonene
|
0-1.0
|
≤
1.0
|
<
1.0
|
0.5-1.5
|
0.5-1.5
|
0.5-3.0
|
1,8-Cineole
|
0-3.0
|
≤
2.5
|
<
2.5
|
6.0-11.0
|
4.0-7.0
|
16.0-39.0
|
β-Phellandrene
|
0-1.0
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
cis-β-Ocimene
|
0-10.0
|
-
|
-
|
b
|
b
|
-
|
trans-β-Ocimene
|
0-6.0
|
-
|
-
|
b
|
b
|
-
|
3-Octanone
|
0-5.0
|
0.1-5.0
|
<2.5
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Camphor
|
0-1.5.0
|
≤
1.2
|
<1.2
|
7.0-11.0
|
6.0-8.0
|
8-16
|
Linalool
|
20.0-45.0
|
20.0-45.0
|
20-45
|
26.0-38.0
|
24.0-35.0
|
34.0-50.0
|
Linalyl
acetate
|
25.0-47.0
|
25.0-47.0
|
25-46
|
20.0-29.0
|
28.0-38.0
|
≤
1.6
|
Lavandulol
|
0-3.0
|
≥
0.1
|
-
|
0.4-1.2
|
0.2-0.8
|
-
|
Terpinen-4-ol
|
0-8.0
|
0.1-8.0
|
1.2-6.0
|
0.3-1.0
|
1.5-5.0
|
-
|
Lavandulyl
acetate
|
0-8.0%
|
≥
0.2
|
>1.0
|
1.0-2.0
|
1.5-3.0
|
-
|
α-Terpineol
|
0-2.0
|
≤
2.0
|
<2.0
|
-
|
-
|
0.2-2.0
|
a ISO has separate
specifications for essential oils of wild English lavender from France, and of
essential oils obtained from plants cultivated by plant cuttings grown in
France (Maillette variety), Australia, Bulgaria, Russia, and other countries.20 The specifications in Table 1 cover the broadest possible
range. b Limits for β-ocimene
are 1.0-7.0% for lavandin Abrial, and 0.5-1.5 for lavandin Grosso. No
distinction between the cis- and trans-isomers is made. Note: Natural variation
based on provenance, growing, harvest, and post-harvest handling practices will
exist.
1.9 General use(s): Lavender and lavandin flower
essential oil is applied topically for skin conditions, inhaled as a sleep aid,
or taken internally to obtain relief from anxiety.10,31-34
English
lavender has been traditionally employed to treat symptoms of certain
nerve-related disorders like minor insomnia.35 Fresh lavender flowers are added to jams, ice cream,
vinegar, and herbal teas. The aromatic oil has a fragrance used to scent many
cosmetics, shampoos, and industrial products. Lavender oil is used as a flavor
component in food and beverage products (vinegars, baked goods, candy, frozen
dairy desserts, gelatins, and puddings).10 The more expensive English lavender oils are mainly used
in the fine fragrance industry. Due to the comparatively high costs of these
oils, they are at a particularly elevated risk for economically motivated
adulteration.
Several
publications suggest external uses of English lavender flower oil for relaxation,
the relief of anxiety and depressive mood, and to promote sleep.10,32-34,36-39
English
lavender oil applied in aromatherapy appears to positively affect individuals’ mood,
improve sleep patterns, and increase alertness based on assessments of electroencephalographic
activity, mathematical computation speed, and sensory evaluation.36,37,40 While many smaller
clinical studies suggest a therapeutic benefit of lavender oil inhalation in
patients with anxiety and insomnia, larger studies are needed to generalize
these findings.38,41-43
In
2016, an oral English lavender oil preparation showed promising results in a
randomized clinical trial on individuals with mixed anxiety-depression (MADD). In
that study, 318 adult out-patients with MADD were randomized and received either
80 mg English lavender essential oil or placebo once per day in double-blind
fashion for a scheduled period of 70 days. Individuals treated with English
lavender essential oil had a better overall clinical outcome and showed more
pronounced improvements of impaired daily living skills and health-related
quality of life.36
1.10 Nomenclature considerations: Naming
lavender is a challenge for lavender oil producers and traders. Accurate identification of the correct
species is difficult due to the existence of hybrids, as well as different varieties
depending on where plants grow. Lavender plants can look different morphologically
depending on soil conditions and geographic locations.11,44 Moreover, there
are up to 132 scientific plant names of species ranking in the genus Lavandula.44 Of these, only
47 have been accepted as species names.44
The
common name “lavender” is applied to several species of Lavandula generally
used for their aromatic quality. In the United States, the Standardized Common
Names “English lavender”, or “common lavender” are applied to dietary
supplements containing L. angustifolia. Other Lavandula species
in the dietary supplement trade include French lavender (L. dentata),
spike lavender, and lavandin.6
The International
Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI) requires the following names to be
used on cosmetic products: Lavandula angustifolia (lavender) oil, Lavandula hybrida (lavandin) oil, and Lavandula
latifolia (spike lavender) oil for lavender, lavandin, and spike lavender
oils, respectively.45 A confusing factor is the availability of
mixtures made with several lavender oils and synthetic linalool and/or linalyl
acetate. Common mixtures are lavender 30/32 and lavender 40/42, standardized to
30% linalool/32% linalyl acetate, and 40% linalool/42% linalyl acetate. Some
manufacturers use Lavandula officinalis (lavender) oil and Lavandula
angustifolia (lavender) oil, respectively, as INCI names for these
ingredients.45 In such cases, a buyer may believe that the
ingredient is a genuine English lavender oil rather than a blend of natural and
synthetic ingredients.
2 Market
2.1 Lavender oil
production
Lavender
cultivars were initiated in the early 1600s in Europe. This coincides with the
emergence of writings about the use of essential oils in herbal medicine texts and
knowledge of oils becoming more widespread in Europe.46 By the 1800s, most of the pharmacopeias of England,
Germany, and France were referencing and prescribing essential oils for a
variety of illnesses. By 2002, worldwide annual lavender essential oil
production was estimated at 200 metric tons (MT) with lavender essential oil
mainly produced in Europe.10
Precise
statistics of lavender essential oil production are difficult to obtain. Giray published
a report in 2018 which combines information from various sources such as
national reports, country studies, and global market reports of private
companies.44 Estimates in this report suggest world production of
lavender essential oil is close to 375 MT. Başer listed production data for essential
oils of lavender and lavandin (Abrial, Grosso, Sumian, and Super varieties) in
2019: Lavender production volume was 750 MT, while lavandin volumes were 2100,
100, 50, and 25 MT for Grosso, Abrial, Sumian, and Super, respectively.47 This contrasts to data from Erich Schmidt, which puts the lavender production closer to 400 MT. (E. Schmidt [Art and Fragrance] email to S.
Gafner, March 7, 2020) Europe continues to be the geographic area with the largest
production in the global lavender oil market, with almost 80% of the world’s
total production.12,44,48
Bulgaria
and France are the largest producers, with Bulgaria alone producing over 200 MT
of lavender essential oil in 2017 (Table 2) followed by France with around 100 MT.44 For over 40 years, China has grown lavender introduced
from France.49 This country has now about 2000 ha.
of lavender in production by collectivist units in Xinjiang Autonomous Province.
They produce 95 percent of China’s lavender-related products.44,49 Chinese lavender production is quite high at around 40 MT,
but the PPRC supplies fewer than 10 MT to the international market.
Table 2. Estimates of lavender oil production in
Bulgaria from 2011-201744
Year
|
Oil Production
(MT)
|
2011
|
45
|
2013
|
120
|
2014
|
140
|
2015
|
200
|
2016
|
280
|
2017
|
200
|
The
essential oil from English lavender plants competes in the marketplace with the
essential oil from the hybrid lavandin. Lavandin produces more essential oil on
a per plant basis than common lavender.50 Global lavender usage/consumption compared to lavandin
usage/consumption is reflected in its production ratio. The ratio of lavender
to lavandin production worldwide was estimated to be about 1:5 in 201213 and about 1:3 in 2019.47
There
is a generalized idea that English lavender grown for the perfume industry is
mainly cultivated in Europe, especially France.13 As described in the previous section, France is still one
of the top producers with 109 MT of lavender oil (Table 3).44
Lavandin
is now extensively cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, Australia,
and Tasmania.13 Indeed, France’s lavandin production surpassed by far lavender in 2016 with 1,439 MT produced. The second largest
producer is Spain with 2000 ha and about 80 MT of lavandin oil produced.
Morocco is in third place with 1000 ha of cultivated area for lavandin essential
oil production (volume not available).44
Changes
in production of lavandin versus lavender in France are provided in Table 3.
After a drop in the number of farms and cultivated area from 2000-2010, the
French lavender/lavandin industry has shown a steady increase in production
from 2010-2016.44
Table
3. Lavender/lavandin cultivation
areas and essential oil production in France44
Year
|
Number of farms
|
Production area (ha)
|
Lavender oil
production (MT)
|
Lavandin oil
production (MT)
|
2000
|
1739
|
16274
|
-
|
-
|
2010
|
1362
|
15994
|
35
|
950
|
2011
|
1258
|
17483
|
40
|
1144
|
2012
|
1311
|
19306
|
53
|
1087
|
2013
|
1324
|
20274
|
50
|
1028
|
2014
|
1390
|
19788
|
63
|
1226
|
2015
|
1443
|
20922
|
82
|
1374
|
2016
|
1496
|
22213
|
109
|
1439
|
Spike
lavender is another Lavandula
plant competing with lavender in the marketplace. Spike lavender has its main
production areas in Spain but grows wild in a large part of the Mediterranean
area, preferring warmer and lower altitude regions than lavender and lavandin.51 Spain is one of the largest producers
of spike lavender essential oil with less than 10 MT a year.44,51
2.2. Supply sources of English lavender:
In 2017, the two major European country producers
of English lavender oil were Bulgaria with 52%, followed by France with 26%.
Bulgaria became the largest producer in 2014 (Table 2).44,52
Bulgaria
has been revamping its English lavender production significantly year after
year. Now, 1,600 farms are producing lavender, four times more than the number
of farms that existed in 2017.44,52 Another major lavender producer is China, with ca. 12% of
the total lavender worldwide world production. Other producers include England,
Russia, Yugoslavia, Australia, United States, Canada, South Africa, Tanzania,
Italy, and Spain. These countries all together produce about 10% of world
production.13,44
Australia
and New Zealand have recently developed an English lavender oil industry.53 Lavender is cultivated in South Africa in the Western and
Eastern Cape that includes KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, Gauteng, Limpopo, and
Mpumalanga provinces.13
2.3 Market dynamics: Market reports provide
rather variable numbers on the lavender market. Al-Rajab stated that global
market for lavender (including English lavender, lavandin, spike lavender, and
others) oil grew from twenty-eight million dollars in 2014 to 36 million dollars
in 2017.54 On the other hand, Persistence Market Research provided a
number of US $76 million for the global trade in 2016 alone, and a forecast that
the global lavender oil market will reach $124.2 million in 2024.48
Lavender
production is affected by the weather. Since Bulgaria is the largest producer
of English lavender oil, the climatic conditions in the growing areas can have
a substantial impact on the availability of English lavender oil, and its
pricing. In 2017, late snow in northern Bulgaria, combined with heavy rains and
hail in the South led to a poor lavender flower harvest, and an estimated 30%
reduction in essential oil production. This sent bulk prices up from US $53 to
US $118 per kg within a year.
In
a dataset prepared using price data from several recent market reports, the
price of English lavender oil ranged from $66-$188/kg in 2018 and lavandin oil ranged
from $32-51/kg.44 The country of origin of the oil
and quality appear to be critical to the price, with lavender oil from France
being the most expensive at a price of $188/kg. In contrast, Hungarian lavender
oil was almost a third of the value ($66/kg) of the French oil.44 In 2019, prices for bulk lavender oil averaged
approximately US $170/kg.47
For
lavandin oil, several different oil qualities exist (qualities are related to
hybrids produced and created in a specific region). One of these hybrids, for
example, is Lavandin Grosso, which originated from a crossover between English lavender
and spike lavender. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
has issued standards for English lavender, spike lavender, and two lavandin hybrids: Abrial and Grosso.20,26-28
In
2018, French Abrial lavandin oil sold at US $48/kg, and French Sumian at
$51/kg. Prices for Grosso were at $32-$34/kg, and Super at $46-$49/kg, depending
on the country of origin.44 In a 2019 presentation, Başer provided a price range US $35-75/kg
for lavandin oils, depending on the quality.47 Prices can vary substantially between local markets and
international markets. While lavandin oil prices are reportedly similar,
lavender oil prices on the international market can be as much as $40-50/kg higher
compared to costs on local French markets.44
3 Adulteration
3.1 Known adulterants
of lavender essential oil
Adulteration
of lavender can be separated into four categories according to Satyal and
Sorensen:55
- The
sale of essential oil mixtures with a similar composition to lavender, such as
lavandin, spike lavender, and essential oils from other Lavandula species and
hybrids
- Additions
of similar essential oils, or essential oil fractions, to lavender oils
- The addition of purified or synthetic components to lavender, lavandin, and other essential oils to obtain a product similar to genuine lavender oil in chemistry and odor.
- The undeclared admixture of non-volatile solvents such as glycols, benzyl benzoate, benzyl salicylate, triethyl citrate, or vegetable oils such as coconut oil
Reports
of lavender oil adulteration include substitution with lavandin, acetylated
lavandin, spike lavender oil, and essential oils from other Lavandula
species.18,55-59 Lavandin oils contain
many of the chemical constituents present in English lavender oil.18,60 Spike lavender has altogether a rather different
composition compared to English lavender (Table 1); therefore, it can easily be
detected and is rarely used as adulterant.18,28 It is used extensively in low-cost perfumery.51 Lavandin can be distinguished from lavender oil by the
presence of larger amounts of camphor (5-10%), 1,8-cineole (3-8%), and borneol
(1.7-3.3%)18,55 leading to a difference in fragrance reportedly detectable
by those trained in sensory assessment.61
The
lower oil production and higher price of English lavender compared to lavandin
oil is the reason why English lavender and lavandin are commonly blended.60 The pressure to drive economically motivated adulteration
is due to relatively high prices of L.
angustifolia oil.58,62 Lavender oil can be mixed with spike lavender oil, whose
prices are around 1/6 those of English lavender oil.58,62
Essential
oils and essential oil fractions that are not obtained from Lavandula species
have also been mentioned in the literature as English lavender adulterants. For
example, adulteration of lavender oil with vetiver oil (Chrysopogon
zizanioides (L.) Roberty, syn. Vetiveria
zizanioides (L) Nash, Poaceae) has been documented.56 This plant, originally from India, is used extensively for
perfumes, cosmetics, deodorants, lotions, soaps, and aromatherapy applications.
Other commercially available essential oils used to adulterate lavender oil include
rectified or acetylated Ho wood oil (obtained from Cinnamomum camphora, Lauraceae) from China, and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, Myrtaceae), and white
camphor oil (from Cinnamomum camphora)
fractions.58,63 Ho wood oil
serves as a starting material in the manufacture of linalool, linalyl acetate,
synthetic lavender oil, and synthetic bergamot oil (synthesized to mimic oil of
the fruit peel of Citrus bergamia, Rutaceae).64 Spanish sage (Salvia
officinalis subsp. lavandulifolia (Vahl) Fams, syn. Salvia
lavandulifolia, Lamiaceae) has been listed as an adulterant of lavender and lavandin
oils by several authors.59,62,63 Another known adulterant
is rosewood (Aniba rosodora, Lauraceae) oil.55,58 Additionally, clary sage (Salvia sclarea, Lamiaceae) oil, rosemary (Salvia
rosmarinus Spenn, syn. Rosmarinus officinalis, Lamiaceae), and petitgrain
(Citrus aurantium var. amara, Rutaceae) oil, or fractions of
these oils, are sometimes used as adulterants.55,58 Due to the relatively high costs of clary
sage, petitgrain, and vetiver oils, these materials are not commonly used to
adulterate lavender oil.55
Synthetic compounds
used to adulterate English lavender essential oil include most often linalool,
terpinene-4-ol, and linalyl acetate.55,56,58,62,65 Limonene, cis-ocimene, trans-ocimene, 3-octanone,
3-octanol, borneol,
and camphor are also used.55,56,58,62 Another means of
adulteration is the addition of a mixture of terpenyl cyclohexanols to increase
what perfumers refer to as the sandalwood note (no direct relationship to true
oil of sandalwood [Santalum album and
other Santalum spp., Santalaceae]).65
There are also reports
of lavender oil being adulterated with phthalates.18,55,58 Diethylphthalate was
commonly used as a solubilizer in fragrances, but its use for this purpose is
limited nowadays.66 It may also leach from plastic tubes and other materials due
to its frequent use as a plasticizer, and its presence can therefore be accidental in nature.56
Misrepresenting
the country of origin is an example of mislabeling and, while the product may
contain English lavender oil, technically this represents an adulterated
product. Beale et al.67 reported essential oils originating from France and Bulgaria
are considered certified essential oils, and therefore are sold and distributed
at premium costs compared to lavender oils from Asia. There is anecdotal
evidence that such oils may be labeled and sold as English lavender oils from
European origin.
3.2 Sources of information
supporting confirmation of adulteration:
Lavender
essential oil adulteration is well documented and has been reviewed in book
chapters or scientific publications,18,51,56,60,62,68 reported after
analysis of commercial lavender essential oils in the peer-reviewed literature,55,69-73 and on industry web
sites.59,63
Industrial
production of lavender oil started in the mid-eighteenth century62 and some accidental adulteration may have existed in the
past due to the confusion of Lavandula
species and existence of hybrids.51 However, lavender varieties, which are not considered English
lavender, were also often mixed commercially in the vessels for financial gain.56,65 In addition, when the plant
material has a high proportion of stem and leaf material, the lavender oil is
considered less valuable.74
One report suggests that lavender and
lavandin oils are adulterated while in the stills (apparatus used to
distill liquid mixtures), before
commencing the distillation of the plant material.56,62 During a tour of lavender
distillation facilities in the French department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence in 1981, essential oil expert
Eric Schmidt
sampled a number of production sites for compositional analysis. Evaluation of
these materials by GC showed that only one out of 10 samples was authentic,
while the other nine samples were adulterated predominantly by adding synthetic
linalool and linalyl acetate. Reduced concentrations of lavandulol and lavandulyl
acetate were also observed. Some of the materials had relatively high amounts
of borneol, camphor, and limonene, suggestive of lavandin oil admixture.56
A
2016 investigation into the authenticity of 16 commercial lavender oils
reported that half of the samples were adulterated. While samples obtained
directly from distillers were all authentic, seven of the nine samples
purchased online or from US retail outlets had traces of byproducts from the
synthesis of linalool and/or linalyl acetate.55
3.3 Accidental or intentional
adulteration:
Both intentional and accidental substitution seems to occur, according to
anecdotal and scientific evidence. In most cases, intentional adulteration
seems to be economically motivated.56 The scenario is complicated by the large heterogeneity of
the Lavandula genus and by the number
of hybrids that exist in cultivars and in nature.
Some
information on the reasons for the adulteration of English lavender can be
obtained from accounts of scientists visiting manufacturing facilities. Schmidt,
who inspected many essential oil producing facilities in the top country
producers of Bulgaria and France, reported evidence of intentional adulteration
with synthetic material.56
In
one case in France, Schmidt found a separate pump spreading synthetic chemicals
directly over 100% pure lavender oil before being distilled.56 In this example, the adulteration is clearly intentional, and
has even occurred in some instances where the company claimed lavender oil from
direct distillation of organically grown English lavender. 3.4. Frequency of occurrence: Lavender
is considered a high-value essential oil, thus the intentional frequency of
adulteration is estimated to be quite high.63 According to essential oil experts, the frequency of
adulteration is close to 90% due to the lower cost of spike lavender and
lavandin essential oils.56,62,69
As
described in section 3.2, random sampling of lavender oil from 10 production
facilities found that only one out of the 10 samples had a lavender oil
composition meeting the requirements of the ISO standards. The others were
adulterated mainly with synthetic linalool and linalyl acetate.56
However, few
tests have been published and data have been confounded depending on the method
and standard used. According to gas chromatography-pyrolysis-isotope mass spectrometry
(GC-IR-MS) results, all
of the five commercial samples of lavender oil were adulterated by blending
with synthetic linalool
and linalyl acetate.70
In a study where 16 commercial lavender oils
purchased from different suppliers in Germany and Switzerland were analyzed, eight
were considered adulterated, predominantly with synthetic linalool and/or linalyl
acetate. Two of the adulterated oils were of Croatian origin and, since these
oils did not meet the specifications of the European Pharmacopoeia, may
represent lavender chemovars, or essential oil from a different Lavandula
species.57
Another analysis of 16 commercial lavender oil
samples, obtained by lab distillation (1), online purchase (7), directly from
distillers (5), or from US distributors (1), or US retail outlets (2), revealed
that only seven of them were
authentic. Seven of the samples
contained markers for synthetic linalool and linalyl acetate.55
In
a study with four commercial samples of putative lavender oil from Romania, one
of the samples
was of synthetic origin.69
Most
of the personal care and home care products such as soaps, body lotions,
shampoos, deodorants, or detergents with “lavender” fragrance do not contain English
lavender oil. The fragrance is imparted by compounding isolates, such as
linalool, linalyl acetate, limonene, and other fragrance components, to make an
ingredient that is perceived to smell like lavender by the consumer.
Additionally, the use of lavender or lavandin “with other natural flavors” (so-called
“WONFs”) by formulators is common. These materials contain a small amount of
essential oil, which is mixed with “natural” (these are generally made by
fermentation) isolates. (S. Gafner, unpublished results)
3.5 Possible safety/therapeutic
issues:
Among the essential oils, lavender is one of the most versatile oils, with an
extremely diverse range of biological and clinical properties.10 Lavender oil has been used safely for more than a hundred
years, and is generally considered to be safe (GRAS) to be consumed orally and
topically for a long time without serious adverse reports in the literature.7,10,11,31 According to recent
reports lavender oil does possess a weak potential for sensitization.39,75,76
The
safety profile of lavender oil materials has been recently put into question by
regulators because of its skin-sensitizing effects. While a list of cosmetic
allergens is missing in the United States, European regulators require a
warning statement on lavender ingredients. The reason for this requirement is its
linalool content since degradation products formed after oxidation (leading to
compounds such as linalool hydroperoxides) may cause skin sensitization.77,78 Companies selling on
the European continent must comply with the labeling requirements for their
products. Linalool is also required by the International Fragrance Association
(IFRA) to have the lowest technically possible peroxide value.79
So
far, there is no conclusive, significant evidence that skin sensitizations are specifically
due to adulterated ingredients. However, lavandin essential oil has a substantially
higher content of camphor compared to lavender oil. Several reports have linked
topical camphor application to allergic contact dermatitis,80-82 but a review on
contact dermatitis caused by topically used herbal medicines did not find an
elevated risk for lavender, lavandin, and spike lavender oil.83 Based on its established toxicity,84 camphor-containing ingredients should not be administered to
toddlers and small children.85
3.6 Analytical methods to detect adulteration: Official analytical tests
for purity and identity include organoleptic evaluations, physical tests (relative
density, refractive index, optical rotation, miscibility in ethanol) and
chemical tests (acid value, ester value, and composition by thin-layer chromatography
[TLC] and GC).11,20,21 All lavender oils can be characterized and identified by a
specific chemical fingerprint.20,21 Flowers produced in the Mediterranean climates, especially
on higher elevations; yield different essential oils than those growing in
colder climates. The composition of the essential oil varies depending on many
factors including mode of cultivation and environmental conditions.7,20
Oils of lavender and
lavandin can be discerned from other essential oils using organoleptic methods.
Both oils are pale yellow and have a characteristic aroma.20,56 ISO standard 3515 shows character and data for lavender oils
from various origins.20
According
to the European Pharmacopoeia, the authenticity assessment of lavender oil is
based on the quantification of characteristic compounds, such as linalool,
linalyl acetate, limonene, 3-octanone, 1,8-cineole, camphor, terpinen-4-ol,
lavandulyl acetate, lavandulol, and α-terpineol by means of capillary GC.21 The calculation of relationship coefficients can also be used
to detect mixtures of lavender oils with natural fractions or isolates. The
ratio between cis-β-ocimene and trans-β-ocimene, trans-β-ocimene
and 3-octanone, and linalool plus linalyl acetate to lavandulol plus lavandulyl
acetate can be determined by GC and then compared to values for authentic
lavender oil.56 Several authors indicate lavandulol and lavandulyl acetate
as marker compounds for lavender essential oils.56,63 Absence of, or low concentrations of lavandulyl acetate (<
3%) and cryptone (< 0.1%), a minor compound in English lavender oil, were used by Satyal and Sorenson as a criterion to detect
adulteration based on testing hundreds on commercial lavender oils from around
the world.55 The presence of byproducts from chemical synthesis, e.g., dehydrolinalool, dihydrolinalool,
dehydrolinalyl acetate, dihydrolinalyl acetate, plinol, and plinyl acetate, are indicators
of adulteration with synthetic linalool and linalyl acetate.55,56,86-88
The
preferred method of analysis for lavender oil is conventional GC according to
ISO and Ph. Eur. using a flame ionization detector (FID).20,21 However, numerous other authors have published GC methods
for the detection of adulteration.67,70,72,73,89-92 Newer
methods have used enantioselective-GC methods to measure the abundance of (R)-linalool,
(S)-linalool, (R)-linalyl acetate, and (S)-linalyl
acetate.57,59,70,73,91,93 The (R)-enantiomers of linalool and linalyl acetate
dominate in English lavender essential oil, making up generally between 88-97%
of linalool, and over 99% of linalyl acetate,57,73,94-96 while synthetically produced linalool and linalyl acetate
are racemic mixtures of the enantiomers.70 A complicating factor is that linalool in lavender oil may
undergo partial racemization when proper processing conditions are not followed.
Linalyl acetate which remains unaltered by the extraction process or the
acidity of the plant, can be added as a more reliable target for enantiomeric analysis.73 Besides the use of chiral columns to measure the abundance
of linalool and linalyl acetate enantiomers, the determination of 2H/1H
isotopic ratios alone or in combination with 13C/12C and 18O/16O
ratios using GC-MS has been used to detect adulteration.70,72 Isotope ratios of linalool and
linalyl acetate can be determined, and characteristic ranges of authenticity
can be deduced. This method together with enantioselective
multidimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (MDGC-MS) allows
differentiation between lavender oil and other species of Lavandula.70 The combination of GC-MS with chemometric tools, such as
multivariate curve resolution (MCR) has also been reported.62,67,71
Beale
et al. tested 54 English lavender oils originating from Europe (n = 30) and Asia (n = 24) using a non-targeted
predictive model and found that samples from both continents met current
standard test methods specifications such as the ISO Standard 11024.97 They concluded such methods for the identification of
lavender oil cannot determine all quality classes of lavender oil. The reason
for this is the application of limits to the percentage abundance of only seven
(out of 170) identified compounds which is an oversimplification for the
distinction among subtle differences in very complex oils from different
origins. The authors expanded the analysis to include all 170 identified
compounds within the lavender oils and analyzed the correlations between their
percentage abundance using multivariate statistics.67 A chemometric model was developed based on the analysis
and it identified 15 unique compounds that differentiated between the European
and Asian lavender oils, but also displayed little inter-variation between
samples of the same cohort. A rapid distinction of the oils was possible using
a Partial Least Squares-Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) model without the issues
of sample-to-sample variation that is inherent to biological samples.67
Several
other methods to distinguish between lavender and lavandin oils have been
published. Lafhal et al. used mid-infrared (MIR) and Raman spectroscopy with
subsequent multivariate statistical analysis to differentiate among essential
oils from three lavender (n = 55) and four lavandin (n = 80) cultivars
collected in southeastern France. High amounts of camphor (3.17-10.14%) were
correlated to lavandin oils, while the comparatively high concentrations in
β-caryophyllene (2.65-7.07%) were used as a marker for lavender oils. Overall,
MIR performed better in predicting the identity of lavender and lavandin oils
than Raman spectroscopy.98 The results also showed that many of the French essential
oils did not comply with ISO or Ph. Eur. standards. Good quantitative data were
obtained for linalool and linalyl acetate using MIR and near-infrared (NIR)
methods.99 A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method with
polarimetric detection for the distinction between lavender and lavandin oils
was published in 2020.96 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has also been used as an
alternative for the quality assessment of lavender oil.100 While these chemometric tools are promising, the key to a
successful outcome is in having enough samples to provide a robust assessment,
and in having the right algorithm to build a model that can reliably
distinguish among the essential oils.
4 Conclusions
English lavender essential oil adulteration is considered to be widespread,
even if information
on the extent is somewhat scarce. According to the available scientific reports,
lavender oil adulteration ranges between 25% to 90%, depending on the analytical
method and criteria for adulteration used. Cosmetic
and perfume manufacturers, essential oil brokers, suppliers and experts all
enumerate different reasons for adulteration occurring:
- High production cost
- Low production output
- Composition is easy to replicate by:
a. Addition of oils from other plants b. Addition of synthetic compounds
English lavender essential oil has two main components, linalool
and linalyl acetate, which average about 67% of the oil. According to most
authorities, English lavender essential oil is derived from L. angustifolia,
although WHO also allows L. × intermedia to be
labeled as lavender oil. There are over 200 plant species producing linalool. One
of the highest linalool concentrations is found in Ho wood oil. Lavender-like
essential oil is also easy to fabricate. Lavandin and spike lavender oils are
considered lower quality lavender oil substitutes, which are blended or tweaked
to match English lavender oil. Other oils such as eucalyptus and white camphor are
used to dilute and adulterate lavender oil as well.
Lavender
essential oil is often used for its calming
and anxiolytic effects. Many of the lavender benefits are at least in part due
to its linalool and linalyl acetate contents. While adulteration with other
essential oils, or essential oil fractions, is not generally considered a
safety hazard, the consumer may not obtain the expected benefits from the
adulterated materials. Unfortunately, there is little or no systematic analysis
to discern the difference in benefits between adulterated lavender oil and a
100% pure natural lavender oil.
Scientific
reports, information from ISO, and the European Pharmacopoeia provide
detailed information on lavender essential oil
composition and specifications. Analytical methods to detect adulteration include
GC-FID, GC-MS, TLC, NMR, and infrared spectroscopy. One or a combination of
these methods can be utilized as a quality control procedure to authenticate lavender
oil and ensure a high-quality ingredient. Despite the body of knowledge, many manufacturing
companies opt to purchase lower-cost adulterated oils from suppliers with insufficient
quality control measures and low traceability.
* English lavender is the
standardized common name for Lavandula angustifolia specified in the American
Herbal Products Association’s Herbs of Commerce, 2nd edition, and is
used as common name throughout this manuscript. However, in other areas of the
world, the term “English lavender” is considered outdated, and the common name
“lavender” is most frequently used. †
Some of the vernacular names are used
for several lavender species, including Lavandula angustifolia. ‡ Ho wood oil, also
known as shiu oil, is the essential oil obtained from a specific chemotype of
the camphor tree, i.e. a chemotype rich in linalool. Acetylation yields an oil
rich in linalyl acetate. § Linalool is commercially
synthesized using acetylene and acetone as starting material, via production of
dehydrolinalool, which is then reduced with a Lindlar catalyst to obtain
linalool. A small amount is fully hydrogenated into dihydrolinalool. The
plinols are formed as a by-product when linalool is produced by semi-synthesis
with α-pinene as starting material.
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REVISION SUMMARY
Version #, Author,
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Date Revised
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Section Revised
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List of Changes
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Version 1, Ezra Bejar
|
n/a
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n/a
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n/a
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Version 2, Ezra Bejar
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9/1/2020
|
Section 3.6
|
Removal of reference: Beaumont C. Origin of
synthetic marker in linalool and linalyl acetate. International Symposium of
the Science of Botanicals (ICSB); 2019; Oxford, MS.
|
|