Editor’s Note: Each month, HerbalEGram highlights a conventional food and briefly explores its history, traditional uses, nutritional profile, and modern medicinal research. We also feature a nutritious recipe for an easy-to-prepare dish with each article to encourage readers to experience the extensive benefits of these whole foods. With this series, we hope our readers will gain a new appreciation for the foods they see at the supermarket and frequently include in their diets.
The basic materials for this series were compiled by dietetic interns from Texas State University (TSU) in San Marcos and the University of Texas at Austin (UT) through the American Botanical Council’s (ABC’s) Dietetic Internship Program, led by ABC Education Coordinator Jenny Perez. We would like to acknowledge Jenny Perez, ABC Special Projects Director Gayle Engels, and ABC Chief Science Officer Stefan Gafner, PhD, for their contributions to this project.
By Hannah Baumana and Maili Huckb
a HerbalGram Assistant Editor b ABC Dietetics Intern (TSU, 2015)
History and Traditional Use
Range and Habitat
Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) is a tropical tree that grows from 33
feet to 131 feet in height and produces large, oval-shaped fruits that are red
and gold when ripe, though some cultivars are green or yellow.1 The
smooth-edged leaves of the mango tree are reddish when young, becoming dark
green and shiny as they mature. The tree produces small pinkish-white flowers
that precede the fruit.2,3 The mango fruit is a drupe, or stone
fruit, containing a large single seed surrounded by fleshy pulp and a thin,
leathery skin.4 The mango tree
begins to bear fruit four to six years after planting and continues to
produce fruit for about 40 years.3,4 Trees older than 10 years tend
toward alternate or biennial bearing, producing fruit every other year.5
While the most commonly used part of the plant is the
fruit, the mango tree has a variety of traditional uses that make use of the
roots, peel, stem bark, leaves, flowers, and seed kernels. These parts
typically contain greater amounts of bioactive compounds, including mangiferin,
than the fruit.4 Belonging to the same plant family as the cashew (Anacardium occidentale) and pistachio (Pistacia vera),
the mango is native to India and Burma, and has been cultivated since 2000 BCE.2
The mango was introduced to Africa about 1,000 years ago and to tropical
America in the 19th century.1,2 Wild fruits have minimal resemblance
to the cultivated mangos, having a much smaller size and unpleasant turpentine-like
taste. Currently, mangos are grown in tropical and warm temperate climates.3
India remains the largest producer, growing 65% of the world’s mango crop.5
Phytochemicals and Constituents
The macro- and micronutrient composition and bioactive
compounds present in M. indica contribute
to its many health benefits. Mango fruits are a rich source of vitamins A, B
and C. Mangos are also a good source of both soluble and insoluble fiber.3
Soluble fiber can help prevent cardiovascular disease and improve
gastrointestinal health.
Mango is a source of many pharmacologically
and medically important chemicals, including mangiferin, mangiferonic acid,
hydroxymangiferin, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and carotenes.6 Different
parts of the plant have different chemical compositions. The bark, for example,
contains catechins, amino acids, and phenolic and triterpenoid compounds.7,8
Due to these constituents, mango bark extract has shown antioxidant, immune
system-enhancing, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal
activities, which correspond to many of mango’s traditional medicinal uses.7
The xanthone mangiferin is found in many different plants across the Anacardiaceae
family, and shows promising results in the areas of antitumor, anti-diabetic,
and anti-microbial actions.
The health benefits of
the fruit pulp are due to its high concentration of antioxidant nutrients and
phytochemicals, such as carotenoids. Carotenoids play an important role in
protective health mechanisms against some forms of cancer, cardiovascular
disease, and macular degeneration, as well as improving immune health.9
Specifically, mangos are high in beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. Mango
also contains smaller amounts of lutein and zeaxanthin, two carotenoids
important for maintaining eye health and preventing macular degeneration. These
phytochemicals are antioxidants, meaning that they slow or prevent the oxidative
process, thereby preventing or repairing damage to cells in the body.10
The polyphenols that have been identified in the mango fruit
include gallic acid, gallotannins, quercetin, isoquercetin, mangiferin, ellagic
acid, and beta-glucogallin. These polyphenols have powerful antioxidant
activity as well as other potentially therapeutic effects. Gallic acid, for
example, is known to have anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities, while
ellagic acid has been found to exhibit antimutagenic, antiviral, and antitumor effects.4
The most biologically active compound that has been
studied in the mango tree is mangiferin. Mangiferin is synthesized by the plant
as a chemical defense compound.6,11 Plant parts that contain the
highest amounts of mangiferin include the leaves, stem bark, heartwood, and
roots. Currently, researchers are investigating potential methods of processing
mango bark and peel into a palatable ingredient or food additive. Magneferin (not
to be confused with the previously mentioned mangiferin) is one of a number of
enzymes present in mangos that improves digestion. Others include catechol
oxidase and lactase.3
Historical and Commercial Uses
Mangifera indica has been used in Ayurveda, India’s
primary system of traditional medicine, for more than 4,000 years. The mango
was thought to have aphrodisiacal properties and is still viewed as sacred
today.3 A variety of the plant’s parts are used as a paste or powder
for cleaning the teeth, and the juice of the mango is considered a restorative
tonic, as well as a treatment for heat stroke.6 Numerous parts of
the mango tree are used in Ayurvedic medicine as an antiseptic, an astringent
to tone lax tissues, a laxative, a diuretic, and to increase sweating, promote
digestion, and expel parasitic worms or other internal parasites.12
The seeds have been used as an astringent and as a treatment for asthma. Fumes
from the burning leaves are used as an inhalant to relieve hiccups and sore
throats.6 The bark is used as an astringent in diphtheria and
rheumatism (disorders of the joints and connective tissues), and the gum was
used in dressings for cracked feet and for scabies (an infestation of the skin
by the human itch mite [Sarcoptes scabiei
var. hominis]).
Current Ayurvedic practices use various parts of the mango
for different ailments. For diarrhea, mango leaves are pounded together and
taken with rice water.13 For nosebleeds, the juice of the mango seed
is placed into the nostrils. For an enlarged spleen, ripe mango juice is
consumed with honey. To treat gonorrhea, mango bark is pounded and added to
milk and sugar. In some tropical countries, mango is actually used as meat
tenderizer, due to the power of the proteolytic enzymes that break down
proteins.3 In traditional ethnoveterinary medicine, all parts of the
mango are used to treat abscesses, broken horns, rabid dog bites, tumors,
snakebites, stings, heat stroke, miscarriage, bacterial illness, blisters and
wounds in the mouth, inflammation of the inner ear, colic, diarrhea, liver
disorders, excessive urination, tetanus, and asthma.14
Among the Tikunas, an indigenous people of Brazil,
Colombia, and Peru, a mango leaf decoction was used as a contraceptive and
abortifacient. Reportedly, taking a cupful on two successive days during
menstruation acted as a contraceptive, and taking it for three days caused
abortion.11,15
Mango fruit is processed at two stages of maturity. Green
fruit is used to make chutney, pickles, curries, and dehydrated products like
dried mango, amchoor (raw mango
powder), and panna (green mango
beverage). Ripe fruit is processed into canned and frozen slices, pulp,
concentrate, juices, nectar, jam, purée, cereal flakes, toffee, and various
dried products.4
Modern Research
Studies indicate that M.
indica possesses myriad therapeutic properties, including antidiabetic,
antioxidant, antiviral, cardiotonic, hypotensive, and anti-inflammatory.6
Each of the mango’s parts — fruit, pulp, peel, seed, leaves, flowers, and bark
— can be used therapeutically.
A 2000 study found that mango stem bark extract showed a
powerful scavenging activity of hydroxyl radicals and acted as a chelator of
iron.6 Although iron is an essential mineral, it is toxic in
excessive amounts. Iron chelators could be an important approach to lessen
iron-induced oxidative damage and prevent iron accumulation in diseases in
which accumulation is prevalent, such as hemochromatosis, a metabolic disorder
in which the body absorbs too much iron, and thalassemia, a rare, inherited
blood disorder caused by a lack of hemoglobin, which results in fewer healthy
red blood cells.4 This same study found a significant inhibitory
effect on the degradation of brain cell membranes in an animal model, and
prevented DNA damage caused by some chemotherapy treatments.6,16
Polyphenolic compounds and related bioactivity are higher
in the mango peel than the fruit, and higher still in the leaves and stem bark.4
The bark is one of the main parts of the tree used for medicinal purposes. A
standardized aqueous extract of M. indica
stem bark called Vimang (LABIOFAM Entrepreneurial Group; La Habana, Cuba)
has been developed in Cuba. This extract has shown antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
and immunomodulatory properties and has been used in many countries for the
treatment of heavy menstrual bleeding, diarrhea, syphilis, diabetes, scabies,
cutaneous infections, and anemia.4,7
Much of the current research looks at extracts of mango
bark or seed. There is a limited amount of literature that looks into the
consumption of the mango fruit itself. However, a 2011 study looked at the
consumption of freeze-dried mango fruit and its effects on weight loss and
glucose tolerance, compared to hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic drugs, in mice
fed a high-fat diet.17 In the study, consumption of freeze-dried
mango prevented the increase in fat mass and the percentage of body fat.
Compared with controls, mice given the freeze-dried mango had improved glucose
tolerance and lowered insulin resistance.
Functional and medicinal properties of the non-fruit
portions of the mango provide promising data for future uses of the plant, and
may allow for less waste of the non-edible parts of the mango. The mango peel,
for example, constitutes about 15-20% of the mango fruit and typically is
discarded prior to consuming the fruit. In commercial processing, the discarded
peels become a wasteful by-product.18 A 2015 study conducted
chemical analysis and determination of the bioactive compounds in a flour made
from green mango peel.19 The mango peel flour had 54 g of total
dietary fiber per 100 g of dry sample, compared to 1.8 g of total dietary fiber
in wheat flour. The mango peel flour also contained 21.7 mg/g of total phenolic
contents and 22.4 mg/g of total flavonoid contents.
The results of this study suggest that the mango peel
flour exhibited functional properties similar to wheat flour, and could serve
as an acceptable substitute in baked goods and other flour-containing foods. Dietary
fiber in mango peel has been shown as a favorable source of high-quality
polysaccharides due to its high starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and
pectin content combined with its low fat content.18 In vitro starch studies suggest low glycemic
responses from mango peel fiber, which suggests potential use for diabetic
individuals.
Mango kernel oil has recently attracted attention due to
its unsaturated fatty acid composition.18 Mango kernel oil has been
widely researched for its function as an antioxidant and antimicrobial agent
due to its high polyphenolic content.4 The major phenolic compounds
in mango seed kernels are (in order of decreasing concentration): tannins,
vanillin, coumarin, cinnamic acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, and
mangiferin, all providing antioxidant protection.
Health Considerations
Possibly explained by its distant relation to poison sumac
(Toxicodendron vernix, Anacardiaceae)
and poison ivy (T. radicans), mango
peel may be irritating to the skin,3 particularly to people who are
highly sensitive to these plants. This is due to the presence of alk(en)ylresorcinols,
a mixture of substances that can cause contact dermatitis to those who are
allergic or sensitive to it.20 Alk(en)ylresorcinol is similar to
urushiol, the toxic resin that causes an itchy rash in those who come into
contact with poison ivy. These allergens are more prevalent in the peel than
the flesh. In one study, four patients developed hives and eczematous rash
after exposure to mangos or mango trees. Children and other persons with food
allergies should take caution when handling and consuming mango. Although
allergy to mango is infrequent, mango has been identified as an
allergy-provoking food in some individuals with other food allergies.
Nutrient Profile21
Macronutrient Profile: (Per 1 cup mango fruit)
99 calories 1.35 g protein 24.7 g carbohydrate 0.63 g fat
Secondary Metabolites: (Per 1 cup mango fruit)
Excellent source of: Vitamin C: 60.1 mg (100.2% DV) Vitamin A: 1,785 IU (35.7% DV)
Very good source of: Folate: 71 mcg (17.75% DV) Dietary Fiber: 2.6 g (10.4% DV) Vitamin B6: 0.2 mg (10% DV)
Good source of: Vitamin K: 6.9 mcg (8.63% DV) Potassium: 277 mg (7.9% DV) Vitamin E: 1.48 mg (7.33% DV) Niacin: 1.1 mg (5.5% DV)
Also provides: Magnesium: 16 mg (4% DV) Riboflavin: 0.06 mg (3.53% DV) Thiamin: 0.05 mg (3.33% DV) Phosphorus: 23 mg (2.3% DV) Calcium: 18 mg (1.8% DV) Iron: 0.26 mg (1.44% DV)
DV = Daily Value as established by the US Food and Drug
Administration, based on a 2,000 calorie diet.
Recipe: Mango and Watermelon Salad Adapted from Mango.org22
Ingredients:
- 2 large, ripe mangos, peeled, pitted, and diced
- 1 cup watermelon, diced
- 1/4 cup red onion, finely diced
- 1 jalapeño pepper, stemmed, seeded, and finely diced
- 12 cherry tomatoes, cut in half
- 1 cup fresh arugula, washed and dried
- 1 clove garlic, minced
- 2 tablespoons fresh lemon juice
- 1 tablespoon extra-virgin olive oil
- 2 teaspoons honey
- 1/2 teaspoon kosher salt
- 3 tablespoons cilantro, chopped
Directions:
- Combine mango,
watermelon, onion, pepper, tomato, and arugula in a large bowl. Toss to
combine.
- Whisk together
remaining ingredients and taste, adjusting seasoning if necessary. Drizzle
dressing over the salad, toss to combine, and serve.
References
- Van Wyk B-E. Food Plants of the World. Portland, OR:
Timber Press; 2006.
- The National Geographic Society. Edible: An Illustrated Guide to the World’s Food Plants.
Washington, DC: National Geographic Society; 2008.
- Murray M, Pizzorno J, Pizzorno L. The Encyclopedia of
Healing Foods. New York, NY: Atria Books; 2005.
- Masibo M, He Q.
Mango bioactive compounds and related nutraceutical properties: A review. Food Rev Int. 2009;25:346-370.
- Morton JF. Mango. In:
Morton JF. Fruits of Warm Climates.
Miami, FL: J.F. Morton; 1987:221-239.
- Shah KA, Patel MB,
Patel RJ, Parmar PK. Mangifera indica
(Mango). Pharmacogn Rev.
2010;4(7):42-48.
- Wauthoz N, Balde A,
Balde ES, Damme MV, Duez P. Ethnopharmacology of Mangifera indica L. bark and pharmacological studies of its main
c-glucosylxanthone, mangiferin. Int J
Biomed Pharma Sci. 2007;1(2):112-119.
- Hamid K, Algahtani
A, Kim MS, et al. Tetracyclic triterpenoids in herbal medicines and their
activities in diabetes and its complications. Curr Top Med Chem. 2015;15(23):2406-2430.
- Hewavitharana AK,
Tan ZW, Shimada R, Shaw PN, Flanagan BM. Between fruit variability of the
bioactive compounds, B-carotene and mangiferin, in mango. Nutrition and Dietetics. 2013;70:158-163.
- Johnson EJ. The role
of carotenoids in human health. Nutr Clin
Care. 2002;5(2):56-65.
- Schultes RE, Raffauf
RF. The Healing Forest: Medicinal and
Toxic Plants of the Northwest Amazonia.
Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press; 1990.
- Johnson EJ. The role
of carotenoids in human health. Nutr Clin
Care. 2002;5(2):56-65.
- Amra (Mangifera indica) National R&D Facility for Rasayana website. Available here. Accessed May 19, 2016.
- Williamson EM. Major Herbs of Ayurveda. London, UK:
Elsevier Science Limited; 2002.
- Duke JA, Vasquez R. Amazonian Ethnobotanical Dictionary. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1994.
- Martinez G, Delgado R, Perez G, Garrido G, Nunez Selles AJ,
Leon OS. Evaluation of the in-vitro antioxidant
activity of Mangifera indica L: extract (Vimang). Phytother Res. 2000;14:424–7.
- Lucas EA, Li W,
Peterson SK, et.al. Mango modulates body fat and plasma glucose and lipids in
mice fed a high-fat diet. Brit J Nutr. 2011;106:1495-1505.
- Tiwari BK, Brunton
NP, Brennan CS. Handbook of Plant Food
Phytochemicals: Sources, Stability and Extraction. West Sussex, UK: John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2013.
- Abidin NSA, Mohamad
SN, Jaafar MN. Chemical composition, antioxidant activity and functional
properties of mango (Mangifera indica L. var Perlis Sunshine) peel flour. Appl Mech Mater. 2015(754-755):1065-1070.
- Knödler M,
Reisenhauer K, Schieber A, Carle R. Quantitative determination of allergenic
5-Alk(en)ylresorcinols in mango (Mangifera
indica L.) peel, pulp, and fruit products by high-performance liquid chromatography.
J Agric Food Chem. 2009;57:3639-3644.
- Basic Report, 09176,
Mangos, raw. Agricultural Research Service, USDA website. Available here. Accessed May 19,
2016.
-
National Mango Board.
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