Editor’s Note: Each
month, HerbalEGram highlights a conventional food and briefly explores its
history, traditional uses, nutritional profile, and modern medicinal research.
We also feature a nutritious recipe for an easy-to-prepare dish with each
article to encourage readers to experience the extensive benefits of these
whole foods. With this series, we hope our readers will gain a new appreciation
for the foods they see at the supermarket and frequently include in their
diets.
The basic materials for this series were compiled
by dietetic interns from Texas State University in San Marcos and the
University of Texas at Austin through the American Botanical Council’s (ABC’s)
Dietetic Internship Program, led by ABC Education Coordinator Jenny Perez. We would like to acknowledge Jenny Perez, ABC Special
Projects Director Gayle Engels, and ABC Chief Science Officer Stefan Gafner,
PhD, for their contributions to this project.
By
Hannah Baumana and Anne Semraub
a HerbalGram Associate Editor
b ABC Dietetics
Intern (TSU, 2014)
Overview
Anise or aniseed (Pimpinella anisum, Apiaceae) is an
herbaceous annual that grows to almost a meter (3.3 feet) in height.1,2
The lower leaves of the plant are dark green, heart-shaped, and shallowly lobed,
while the upper leaves are feathery. In the summer, the plant produces small, white flowers in an umbrella-shaped
head, and, in the fall, these flowers produce aromatic fruits that are three to
four millimeters in length. These fruits, called “anise seeds” in the market
and referred to in the rest of this article as “seeds,” are the medicinal and
culinary portion of the plant.
The cultivation of anise, which is native to the
Anatolian peninsula, Greece, and Egypt, has spread to other countries. The
plant grows well in warm, frost-free climates.3,4 Anise should not
be confused with fennel (Foeniculum vulgare,
Apiaceae), licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra,
Fabaceae), or star anise (Illicium verum,
Schisandraceae), which have similar flavors but different medicinal effects.
Phytochemicals and Constituents
Anise contains a number of biologically important substances,
in particular its essential oil.5 The most abundant constituent of
aniseed essential oil is trans-anethole, which makes up 80-90% of the oil.6
Other components found in anise include a variety
of coumarins (scopoletin, umbelliferone, umbelliprenine, and bergapten),
flavonoids (quercetin, apigenin, luteolin, and their glycosides), and other
aromatic oil compounds (estragole, anise ketone, and beta-caryophyllene).4,7
Some coumarins have anticoagulant (blood-thinning) properties and increase
blood flow while decreasing capillary permeability. Certain flavonoids, such as
quercetin, have antioxidant activities that may reduce the risk of cardiovascular
disease and various types of cancer.8
Historical and Commercial Uses
Anise has been used in culinary and medical
applications for more than 3,000 years. The gray-brown, ovoid seeds are known
for their gastrointestinal benefits, relieving distension and cramping due to
gas, and for being a mild cough-reliever and expectorant. A folk remedy for
hiccups calls for a few seeds taken with water.1
The earliest recorded medicinal use of anise seed
dates back to 1500 BCE in Egypt, as mentioned in the Ebers Papyrus as a
medicine for flatulence.2 The use of anise spread through trade and
became a common medicine throughout the Mediterranean, East Asia, and Europe. The
Greek physician Dioscorides described anise in his 70 CE medical treatise De materia medica as warming and drying,
and recommended it as a vermifuge as well as for bad breath, headaches, low
milk supply in nursing mothers, colds, and to aid digestion.4 Around
the same time period, Roman statesman Pliny the Elder wrote in his Naturalis historia that the best anise
came from Crete, and that “it is generally thought that there is nothing in
existence more beneficial to the abdomen and intestines than anise.”9
Pliny also described the use of anise for convulsions and seizures.
Traditional Chinese medicine indicated anise as a remedy
for cough and gastrointestinal upset, and the Indian Ayurvedic system of
medicine noted anise as a gas-reliever and aromatic spice.2 Native
Amazonians used it as a gentle remedy for children with stomach aches.4
In traditional Iranian medicine, anise has been used as an analgesic for migraines and as a carminative, aromatic,
disinfectant, and diuretic. In some traditional texts, anise is mentioned as a
remedy for melancholy, nightmares, and as a treatment for epilepsy and seizures.10,11 The German Commission E monographs list the internal
use of anise seed decoction or essential oil for dyspepsia, sore throats, and
coughs, and the inhalation of preparations containing 5-10% essential oil for
sore throats and coughs.12 The monographs of the European Medicines
Agency (EMA), which is the medicine authority for the European Union, indicate
the oral use of anise preparations for symptomatic treatment of mild, spasmodic
gastrointestinal complaints, including bloating and flatulence, and as an expectorant
in cough associated with cold.13
The seeds are mildly estrogenic and promote milk
production.14 In the Netherlands, anise seed cookies are a
traditional gift given to new mothers to ensure a plentiful milk supply.
Although the whole seed is generally considered a safe addition to a postpartum
diet, there have been two reported cases of nursing mothers who drank large
amounts (2 liters per day) of fennel and anise tea, which caused weakness and
vomiting in their newborns.14,15 Symptoms resolved quickly after
consumption of the tea was discontinued, with no known long-term effects for
mothers or infants.
Currently, anise seeds are a popular flavoring for
liquor, desserts, and other culinary applications. Almost every culture around
the globe has a liquor made from anise, including Middle Eastern arak; Greek
ouzo; Turkish rakı; French absinthe, anisette, and pastis (and, it is rumored,
part of the herbal mélange in Chartreuse); German Jägermeister; Swiss
Appenzeller Alpenbitter; Italian sambuca; Dutch Brokmöpke; Bulgarian and
Macedonian mastika; Portuguese, Peruvian, and Spanish anísado and Herbs de
Majorca; Colombian aguardiente; and Mexican Xtabentún.
Modern Research
Human
trials have shown relief of constipation consistent with the historical role of
anise in resolving gastrointestinal complaints.10 A double-blind,
randomized study of 107 subjects found that three grams of anise powder after
every meal was effective in relieving the symptoms of functional dyspepsia,16
and a smaller study of 25 subjects in hospice and palliative care found that an
aromatherapy treatment using a blend of oils, including anise oil, reduced the
symptoms of nausea.17 A multi-herb decoction of anise, fennel, elder
flower (Sambucus nigra, Adoxaceae),
and flowers of the stimulant, laxative herb senna (Senna alexandrina, Fabaceae) was found to be a safe and effective
treatment for chronic constipation in a small randomized, crossover,
placebo-controlled trial.18
Human
trials have also investigated anise as a therapy for symptoms of menopause,
likely due to its phytoestrogen content. A randomized, controlled trial found
that 300 mg of an anise extract taken daily was effective at reducing the
number and intensity of hot flashes in menopausal women.19
Animal
studies have investigated anise’s anticonvulsant activity. Anise oil was shown
to reduce epileptic seizures and seizure-related brain damage in rats by
increasing the time between seizures and decreasing seizure severity.20
An additional study indicated that the effect on mice was dose-dependent and
“more satisfactory” than conventional anti-seizure drug phenobarbital in
delaying death.21
In vitro
tests on anise oil and extract are uncovering new possible medicinal applications.
Trans-anethole and its derivatives may help reduce tumor development and
progression by blocking the activation of genes involved in inflammation, cell
survival, cell proliferation, and blood vessel development.22 Water
and alcohol extracts of anise seeds have been evaluated for antioxidant
activity using different antioxidant tests, with both extracts showing strong
antioxidant activity.8 Anise’s antioxidant, antimicrobial, and
antifungal properties indicate that it may have use as a food additive to
prevent the growth of foodborne pathogens and spoilage.23-25
Consumer
Considerations
Great care should be taken with the internal use of
essential oils. Ingestion of one to five milliliters of anise essential oil can
cause nausea, vomiting, seizures, and pulmonary edema. However, at low levels,
trans-anethole is efficiently broken down by the body.7 The coumarins
present in anise oil may cause photosensitivity in excessive doses.26
Anise essential oil may also interfere with acetaminophen and caffeine, making
these substances less bioavailable in the body and compromising their efficacy.27
Those with an allergy to anise or other plants in the Apiaceae family (fennel,
caraway [Carum carvi], celery [Apium graveolens], coriander [Coriandrum sativum], dill [Anethum graveolens], etc.) should avoid
the use of anise.4,12
Nutrient Profile5
Macronutrient Profile: (Per 1 tablespoon
anise seeds [approx. 6.7 grams])
23 calories
1.18
g protein
3.35
g carbohydrate
1.07
g fat
Secondary Metabolites: (Per 1 tablespoon
anise seeds [approx. 6.7 grams])
Very good source of:
Iron:
2.48 mg (13.8% DV)
Good source of:
Manganese:
0.15 mg (7.5% DV)
Also provides:
Calcium:
43 mg (4.3% DV)
Dietary
Fiber: 1 g (4% DV)
Phosphorus:
29 mg (2.9% DV)
Magnesium:
11 mg (2.8% DV)
Potassium:
97 mg (2.8% DV)
Vitamin
C: 1.4 mg (2.3% DV)
Vitamin
B6: 0.04 mg (2% DV)
Thiamin:
0.02 mg (1.3% DV)
Riboflavin:
0.02 mg (1.2% DV)
Niacin:
0.21 mg (1.1% DV)
DV =
Daily Value as established by the US Food and Drug Administration, based on a
2,000-calorie diet.
Recipe: Citrus
Salad with Anise Syrup
Adapted from Gourmet28
Ingredients:
- 1/3
cup sugar
- 1/3
cup water
- 3
tablespoons anise seed
- 5
large ruby red or pink grapefruit
- 4
blood oranges
Directions:
- Dissolve
sugar in water in a small saucepan over medium heat, stirring frequently.
- Add
anise and simmer five minutes. Remove from heat and let steep, covered, for 30
minutes.
- Cut
peel, including white pith, from fruit with a sharp knife.
- Cut
segments free from membranes into a bowl. Squeeze juice from membranes into
bowl.
- Add
anise syrup to fruit and juice and stir gently. Note: Can be made ahead and
chilled.
References
- Weiss RF, Fintelmann V. Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed.
New York, NY: Georg Thieme Verlag; 2000.
- Hemphill I. The
Spice and Herb Bible. Toronto, Canada: Robert Rose Inc.; 2002.
- National Geographic Society. Edible: An Illustrated Guide to the World’s Food Plants. Washington
DC: National Geographic Society; 2008.
- Jodral MM. Illicium,
Pimpinella, and Foeniculum. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press LLC; 2004.
- Basic
Report: 02002, Spices, anise seed. US Department of Agriculture Agricultural
Research Service. Available at: https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/252.
Accessed November 18, 2016.
- Özcan
MM, Chalchat JC. Chemical composition and antifungal effect of anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) fruit oil at
ripening stage. Ann Microbiol.
December 2006;56:353-358.
- Barnes J, Anderson LA, Phillipson JD. Herbal Medicines. 3rd ed. London, UK: Pharmaceutical Press; 2007.
- Yao LH, Jiang YM, Shi J, et al. Flavonoids in food
and their health benefits. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2004;59:113-122.
- Pliny
the Elder. Naturalis historia.
Bostock J, trans. London, UK: Taylor and Francis; 1855.
- Shojaii A, Fard MA. Review of pharmacological
properties and chemical constituents of Pimpinella
anisum. ISRN Pharmaceutics. 2012;2012:510795.
- Karimzadeh
F, Hosseini M, Mangeng D, et al. Anticonvulsant and neuroprotective effects of Pimpinella anisum in rat brain. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine.
2012;12:76-84.
- Blumenthal M, Busse WR,
Goldberg A, et al, eds. Klein S, Rister RS, trans. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to
Herbal Medicines. Austin, TX: American Botanical Council; Boston:
Integrative Medicine Communication; 1998.
- Committee
on Herbal Medicinal Products. Community herbal monograph on Pimpinella anisum L., aetheroleum.
London, UK: European Medicines Agency; 2013. Available at: www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Herbal_-_Community_herbal_monograph/2014/06/WC500168973.pdf. Accessed November
17, 2016.
- Romm A. Botanical
Medicine for Women’s Health. St. Louis, MO: Churchill Livingstone; 2010.
- Rosti
L, Nardini A, Bettinelli ME, Rosti D. Toxic effects of a herbal tea mixture in
two newborns. Acta Paediatrica. June 1994;83(6):683.
- Ghoshegir
SA, Mazaheri M, Ghannadi A, et al. Pimpinella
anisum in the treatment of functional dyspepsia: A double-blind, randomized
clinical trial. J Res Med Sci.
January 2015;20(1):13-21.
- Gilligan NP. The palliation of nausea in hospice
and palliative care patients with essential oils of Pimpinella
anisum (aniseed), Foeniculum
vulgare var. dulce (sweet fennel), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile) and Mentha x piperita (peppermint). International
Journal of Aromatherapy. 2005;15(4):163-167.
- Picon PD, Picon RV, Costa AF, et al. Randomized
clinical trial of a phytotherapic compound containing Pimpinella anisum, Foeniculum
vulgare, Sambucus nigra, and Cassia augustifolia for chronic
constipation. BMC Complement Altern Med.
April 2010;10:17.
- Nahidi F,
Kariman N, Simbar M, et al. The study on the effects of Pimpinella anisum on relief and
recurrence of menopausal hot flashes. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2012;11(4):1079-1085.
- Fard MA, Shojaii A. Efficacy of Iranian traditional
medicine in the treatment of epilepsy. BioMed Research International. 2013; 692751.
- Heidari MR, Ayeli M. Effects of methyl alcoholic
extract of Pimpinella anisum L. on
picrotoxin induced seizure in mice and its probable mechanism. Scientific Journal of Kurdistan University
of Medical Sciences. 2005;10(3):1-8.
- Sung B, Prasad S, Yadav VR, et al. Cancer cell
signaling pathways targeted by spice-derived nutraceuticals. Nutrition and Cancer.
2012;64(2):173-197.
- Fitsiou E, Mitropoulou G, Spyridopoulou K, et al.
Phytochemical profile and evaluation of the biological activities of essential
oils derived from the Greek aromatic plant species Ocimum basilicum, Mentha
spicata, Pimpinella anisum, and Fortunella margarita. Molecules. 2016;21(8):1069.
- Conforti F, Tundis R, Marrelli M, et al.
Protective effect of Pimpinella anisoides ethanolic extract and its
constituents on oxidative damage and its inhibition of nitric oxide in
lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. J Med Food. February 2010;13(1):137-141.
- Radaelli M, da Silva BP, Weidlich, et al.
Antimicrobial activities of six essential oils commonly used as condiments in
Brazil against Clostridium perfringens.
Braz J Microbiol. April-June
2016;47(2):424-430.
- Hoult
JRS, Paya M. Pharmacological and
biochemical actions of simple coumarins: natural products with therapeutic
potential. Gen. Pharmac. 1996;27(4):713-722.
- Samojlik
I, Petković S, Stilinović N, Vukmirović S, Mijatović V, Božin B.
Pharmacokinetic herb-drug interaction between essential oil of aniseed (Pimpinella anisum L., Apiaceae) and
acetaminophen and caffeine: A potential risk for clinical practice. Phytother Res. February
2016;30(2):253-259.
- Roberts M. Citrus Salad with Star Anise Syrup. Gourmet. December 2008. Available at: www.epicurious.com/recipes/food/views/Citrus-Salad-with-Star-Anise-Syrup-350912. Accessed November 17, 2016.
|