HerbalEGram: Volume 15, Issue 11, November 2018

Editor’s Note: Each month, HerbalEGram highlights a conventional food and briefly explores its history, traditional uses, nutritional profile, and modern medicinal research. We also feature a nutritious recipe for an easy-to-prepare dish with each article to encourage readers to experience the extensive benefits of these whole foods. With this series, we hope our readers will gain a new appreciation for the foods they see at the supermarket and frequently include in their diets. The American Botanical Council (ABC) would like to acknowledge ABC Education Coordinator Jenny Perez and ABC Chief Science Officer Stefan Gafner, PhD, for their contributions to this project. The original article on chickpea was published in November 2015.

By Hannah Bauman^a and Mallory Houck^b

^a HerbalGram Associate Editor

^b ABC Dietetics Intern (Texas State University, 2015)

Overview

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum, Fabaceae) is an annual plant with a small, bushy form. Its branched stems contain as many as 17 pairs of leaflets.¹ Chickpea flowers are white to violet and appear in spring to early summer.² The edible chickpeas themselves are formed inside hairy, oblong pods that grow up to 1.5 inches (38 mm) long and contain one or two seeds.¹ The seeds are the primary plant part grown for human consumption, and they are most often found dried or canned in commerce.

The genus name Cicer originates from the Hebrew kirkes, which means “round,” while the species name arietinum means “ram-like,” alluding to the resemblance of chickpea seeds to the rounded, curled head of a ram.³ The chickpea has many common names depending on the geographic region, such as garbanzo (Spanish), pois chiche (French), Kichererbse (German), chana (Hindi), and gram or Bengal gram (English). It has a nutlike taste and a buttery texture.

There are two types of cultivated chickpeas that differ in size and color.³ Macrosperma or kabuli chickpea seeds are often large and cream-colored, while microsperma or desi chickpea seeds are much smaller with a yellow-brown color.^2,3 The kabuli chickpea is grown in temperate regions from Afghanistan through western Asia, as well as in North Africa, southern Europe, and South America.⁴ Desi chickpeas are grown predominantly in the semi-arid tropics of southern India, Ethiopia, Mexico, and Iran. Currently, the chickpea is cultivated in more than 50 countries, including Australia.⁵

Phytochemicals and Constituents

The chickpea is high in protein and contains carbohydrates, fat, and both soluble and insoluble fibers. In addition, chickpeas contain abundant vitamins such as vitamin C, riboflavin (vitamin B₂), pantothenic acid (vitamin B₅), pyridoxine (vitamin B₆), and folic acid, and minerals such as calcium, manganese, iron, magnesium, copper, zinc, molybdenum, chromium, and selenium, a rare dietary trace mineral.^5,6

The carbohydrate content of chickpea is higher than that of other pulses.⁵ (Pulses, sometimes called “grain legumes,” are legumes that are harvested for their dried seeds, such as kidney beans [Phaseolus vulgaris], garden peas [Pisum sativum var. sativum], and lentils [Lens culinaris].) Various types of sugars and carbohydrates — monosaccharides, disaccharides, and oligosaccharides — are all found in chickpea, although the amount varies depending on the cultivar. Complex carbohydrates, such as oligosaccharides, benefit the microflora (i.e., the probiotic or beneficial bacteria) in the intestine. Dietary fiber is also important for intestinal health, and consumption of fiber has been associated with lower blood cholesterol levels and improved bowel health. The soluble and insoluble fibers found in chickpea can provide a substrate for healthy intestinal bacteria and promote bowel regularity. The chickpea contains a total of 18-22 grams of dietary fiber per 100 grams, which is much higher than comparable servings of other pulses.⁵

The protein content of chickpea differs depending on whether the hull, or seed coat, is intact.⁵ Compared to the same serving of other pulses, such as lentil, green pea, and kidney bean, chickpea has a higher amount of bioavailable protein. Chickpea also contains a variety of amino acids, including lysine, tyrosine, glutamic acid, and histidine. However, chickpea does not contain all of the necessary amino acids to be considered a complete protein, and it is typically consumed with cereal grains to complement the amino acid profile.

Chickpea also contains more fat than other pulses and cereals. Chickpea is a good source of nutritionally important polyunsaturated fatty acids (e.g., linoleic acid), and also contains monounsaturated fatty acids (e.g., oleic acid) and saturated fatty acids.⁵ Chickpea is higher in linoleic acid and oleic acid than other pulses. Polyunsaturated fatty acids have been known to positively affect serum lipid levels (e.g., cholesterol levels) and insulin sensitivity, and therefore are capable of lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD).⁷

The alpha-tocopherol content in chickpea, which contributes to its antioxidant properties, is also higher than that in other pulses.⁵ Alpha-tocopherol, a form of vitamin E that the body absorbs easily, has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties and plays a role in lowering cholesterol.⁸

Chickpea contains other bioactive compounds, including antioxidant phenolic compounds such as isoflavones (e.g., biochanin A and formononetin); antioxidant carotenoids, including beta-carotene, lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin; cholesterol-lowering phytosterols; and immune-enhancing and cholesterol-lowering saponins. Isoflavones have been shown to inhibit low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol oxidation and maintain the physical properties of smooth muscle cells.⁵ Saponins have been shown to bind to dietary cholesterol and reduce overall plasma cholesterol, and lycopene has been associated with a protective role against prostate cancer.

Although the seed is the most commonly consumed part of the plant, the young leaves of the chickpea are consumed as a vegetable in India and Nepal.⁹ Chickpea leaves contain calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, zinc, and manganese. A 100-gram serving of chickpea leaves contains a higher concentration of these minerals than a 100-gram serving of spinach (Spinacia oleracea, Chenopodiaceae) or cabbage (Brassica oleracea, Brassicaceae).

Historical and Commercial Uses

Chickpea is a traditional staple protein crop across the Mediterranean basin, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and East Africa.¹⁰ Chickpea is believed to have been domesticated 7,500 years ago from its wild plant ancestor in southeastern Turkey, within the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East.¹ Chickpeas were then introduced to the Mediterranean region around 4000 BCE and reached India by 2000 BCE. Marcus Tullius Cicero, the famous Roman philosopher from the first century BCE, gained his family name from cicer, the Latin word for chickpea, due to a cleft-like formation on an ancestor’s nose.¹¹ Following European colonization of North America, chickpea was introduced to the continent. In addition, it has become an important crop in Australia in the last several decades.

Historically, the leaves, stems, and pods of the chickpea plant were grown for malic and oxalic acids, which were collected by spreading a thin length of muslin over the crop during the night.¹² The cloth was pressed out in the morning, and the resulting acids used for various medicinal purposes: as an aphrodisiac and for bronchitis, mucus buildup, cholera, constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, flatulence, snakebite, sunstroke, and warts. The chickpea seed also has been used to expel parasitic worms from the body, as well as to treat blood disorders, and liver- or gall bladder-related issues, such as biliousness (a term formerly used to describe various gastrointestinal symptoms related to liver or gallbladder dysfunction).⁵ A traditional preparation of a cooked chickpea-milk mixture still is used in Chile to control diarrhea in infants.⁴ For more than 2,500 years, Uyghur people in western China have used chickpea preparations to treat hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, itchy skin, flatulence, tumor formation, and osteoporosis.^5,13

All over the world, the chickpea seed is prepared in a variety of ways. In India, the chickpea is ground to make flour known as besan, which forms the base of many dishes.⁵ In Asia and Africa, the chickpea traditionally is used whole in stews, soups, and salads, and prepared by roasting, boiling, salting, or fermenting. In the Middle East and India, chickpeas are used in dishes such as hummus, falafel, and curries. Chickpeas most commonly are sold canned or dried, since fresh chickpeas have a high moisture content and spoil quickly.¹⁴

In the United States, consumers may be most familiar with chickpeas as the main ingredient in hummus. The dish, which is an ancient recipe from the Mediterranean region, is composed of ground chickpeas, lemon (Citrus × limon, Rutaceae) juice, tahini (ground sesame [Sesamum indicum, Pedaliaceae] seeds), garlic (Allium sativum, Amaryllidaceae), and olive (Olea europaea, Oleaceae) oil. Hummus is growing in popularity outside of its area of origin in Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt, and this increased demand has spurred some tobacco (Nicotiana spp., Solanaceae) farmers to convert their fields to chickpea cultivation.¹⁵ Unlike many popular packaged dips, hummus contains high amounts of protein and fiber as well as mono- and polyunsaturated fats, and marketers are using this to target health-minded consumers.¹⁶

Chickpea flour also is increasingly used to fortify products made with wheat (Triticum aestivum, Poaceae) flour.¹⁷ Replacing 10% of wheat flour with chickpea flour in a simple bread recipe produces a finished product with similar appearance, taste, and structure to the 100% wheat flour recipe; however, the supplemented product has higher protein, fiber, and mineral contents.

Modern Research

Preliminary Research

Despite chickpea’s history of use as a medicinal food, researchers have only recently begun to explore its potential applications. In preliminary in vitro and in vivo studies, extracts of chickpea seed have shown aphrodisiacal, estrogenic, antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, cytotoxic, and antimicrobial effects.¹³ Chickpea extract appears to be safe; no toxicity was observed in rats, even at very high doses. Clinical trials have largely focused on the use of chickpea supplementation for mitigating risk factors for chronic inflammatory conditions such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes

In a 2008 clinical study, adults with CVD risk factors consumed chickpeas for 12 weeks.¹⁸ Participants showed increased levels of polyunsaturated fatty acid and dietary fiber, as well as an increased ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acid that was associated with reduced levels of cholesterol and fasting insulin.

Low-glycemic foods, such as chickpea, tend to be high in dietary fiber and are digested slowly, and these qualities correlate with reduced rates of obesity, coronary artery disease, and type 2 diabetes.¹⁹ Clinical studies that integrated chickpea into a high-fat diet demonstrated improvements in fasting insulin and total cholesterol levels.⁵ In addition, a short-term study showed post-prandial glucose levels to be lower in subjects who consumed a chickpea meal compared to those who consumed wheat or white bread.¹⁹ A more rigorous crossover study followed 47 adults through two dietary regimens with five weeks of a diet supplemented with chickpea products followed by five weeks of a diet supplemented with wheat products.²⁰ The chickpea-supplemented diet was associated with significantly lower total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels than the wheat diet. Researchers concluded that the polyunsaturated fat and dietary fiber content of the chickpea diet was responsible for the observed change.

Weight Management

Body composition can also play a role in CVD and diabetes mitigation. A crossover study designed to observe the impact of chickpea supplementation on food choice and satiety followed 42 healthy participants for 20 weeks. For the first four weeks, participants consumed their usual diet, then completed 12 weeks of a diet with an average of 104 grams per day of chickpea supplementation before resuming their usual diet for another four weeks.²¹ Researchers found that participants tended to eat more processed snack foods that were high in calories and low in fiber after ceasing chickpea consumption. According to participant diaries and discussions, the perceived benefits of consuming chickpeas were satiation, improved health, and increased dietary variety.

Gastrointestinal Health

The microbiota in the human gastrointestinal tract has been shown to have an important role in health. A human clinical study showed that certain species of beneficial bacteria (Bifidobacterium spp.) were more abundant in subjects fed a chickpea diet when compared to subjects whose diets did not include chickpea. At the same time, certain pathogenic bacteria of the genus Clostridium were less abundant after chickpea consumption.²² These findings indicate that the chickpea has the potential to modify intestinal microbial composition and thus enhance overall health and immune function. In the weight management study mentioned in the previous paragraph, participants also reported improved bowel function during the chickpea supplementation period, which can possibly be attributed to the fiber content of the chickpea.²¹

Consumer Considerations

The Fabaceae family contains several species that have been associated with allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.²³ Chickpea is a known allergen. In Spain, allergy to legumes, including chickpea, is the fifth most common allergy reported in children.¹⁰ Although allergy to chickpea is less common than allergies to peanut (Arachis hypogaea, Fabaceae) or soybean (Glycine max, Fabaceae), the symptoms can range from hives to severe respiratory distress.²³

Many pulses, including chickpea, contain anti-nutrient factors (ANFs), which limit their biological value and use as a food. ANFs interfere with digestion and absorption of nutrients. Chickpeas contain at least three ANFs: Two kinds of protease inhibitors and phytic acid, which binds to iron, zinc, calcium, and magnesium, making them unavailable for absorption in the small intestine.⁵ However, any cooking method significantly decreases ANFs in chickpeas and has the additional benefit of increasing crude fiber content.²⁴

Nutrient Profile²⁵

Macronutrients: (Per 100 g [approx. 1/2 cup] chickpeas)

378 calories

20.47 g protein

62.95 g carbohydrate

6 g fat

Secondary Metabolites: (Per 100 g chickpeas)

Excellent source of:

Folate: 557 mcg (139.3% DV)

Molybdenum: 62 mcg (137.8% DV)

Dietary Fiber: 12.2 g (48.8% DV)

Manganese: 0.85 mg (42.5% DV)

Thiamin: 0.48 mg (32% DV)

Vitamin B₆: 0.53 mg (26.5% DV)

Phosphorus: 252 mg (25.2% DV)

Very good source of:

Iron: 4.31 mg (23.9% DV)

Potassium: 718 mg (20.5% DV)

Magnesium: 79 mg (19.8% DV)

Zinc: 2.76 mg (18.4% DV)

Riboflavin: 0.21 mg (12.4% DV)

Vitamin K: 9 mcg (11.3% DV)

Good source of:

Niacin: 1.54 mg (7.7% DV)

Vitamin C: 4 mg (6.7% DV)

Calcium: 57 mg (5.7% DV)

Also provides:

Vitamin E: 0.82 mg (4% DV)

Vitamin A: 67 IU (1.3% DV)

DV = Daily Value as established by the US Food and Drug Administration, based on a 2,000-calorie diet.

Image credits (top to bottom):

Fresh chickpeas in pods.
Chickpea seed pod and flower. Image courtesy of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.
Chickpea illustration by John Curtis from Curtis’s Botanical Magazine. 1821.
Dried chickpeas in a bowl. Image courtesy of AlixSaz.

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