By Jenny
Perez,a Juliette Coronado,b and Hannah Baumanc
a American Botanical
Council (ABC) Education Coordinator
b ABC Dietetics
Intern (Texas State, 2016)
c HerbalGram Associate Editor
Editor’s note: Each month, HerbalEGram highlights a conventional food and
explores its history, traditional uses, nutritional profile, and modern
research. We also feature a nutritious recipe for an easy-to-prepare dish with
each article to encourage readers to experience the extensive benefits of these
whole foods. With this series, we hope our readers will gain a new appreciation
for the foods they see at the supermarket and frequently include in their
diets.
The basic materials for this series were compiled
by dietetic interns from Texas State University in San Marcos through ABC’s
Dietetic Internship Program, led by ABC Education Coordinator Jenny Perez. We would like to acknowledge ABC Chief Science Officer
Stefan Gafner, PhD, for his contributions to this project.
Overview
Salvia hispanica, commonly known as
chia, is an herbaceous annual species native to central and southern Mexico and
northern Guatemala.1,2 The genus Salvia
contains approximately 900 species that are distributed throughout the world. Growing
to one meter (three feet) in height, the chia plant has a square stem and
serrated, oppositely arranged, lime-green leaves that grow up to three inches
long and two inches wide. Chia produces white or purple bilabiate flowers on
the tips of its terminal stems.3,4 The chia plant is grown for its
very small (2 mm in length), nutritious seeds, which are oval-shaped and vary
in color from black, grey, or black spotted to white.1,3 The high
oil content of the seeds gave rise to chia’s common name, derived from the word
chian (“oily”) in the Nahuatl
language of the Aztecs.5,6 Salvia
hispanica is also commonly known as Spanish sage, Mexican chia, and black
chia.3,5
The
chia plant requires fertile, well-draining soil and subtropical climate
conditions.7 Chia is sensitive to daylight and is considered a
short-day flowering plant, meaning that it will flower only if the daily light
period is less than a certain number of hours. It must be sown in late spring
but will not flower until late summer or fall at high latitudes, making it
challenging for chia seeds to ripen before the first frost.7,8 As a
result, horticulturists have bred chia seed varieties that flower and set seed
earlier in the season.4 Outside its native range, chia seed is
cultivated in Australia, Bolivia, Peru, Columbia, Argentina, the United States,
and Europe. Mexico is recognized as the world’s largest producer of chia seeds.1
Historical and Commercial Uses
Chia seed
has been used by Mesoamerican cultures for more than 1,000 years for medicinal,
culinary, and artistic purposes, and as a religious offering.3,9,10 The
seed of the chia plant is the part most often used for medicinal purposes, typically
as a mucilaginous paste.7 However, the root and aerial parts are also
used occasionally.10 Along with corn (Zea mays, Poaceae), beans, and amaranth (Amaranthus spp., Amaranthaceae), chia seeds were one of the staple foods
of several Mesoamerican civilizations, including the Maya and Aztec.1,11
Typically, chia cultivation can produce 500-600 kg (1,100-1,300 lbs) of chia
seed per acre; however, when grown under ideal agronomic conditions, yields can
increase to 2,500 kg (5,500 lbs) per acre.5,10 Aztec records
indicate that 4.4 million-12.5 million kg (9.7 million-27.6 million lbs) of
chia seed were sent to Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital annually. When combined
with other staples, this was enough to feed 100,000 to 150,000 people.7
Prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century, chia seed was used by native
tribes to provide energy. Prized by Aztec warriors in central Mexico, chia
seeds were eaten to promote endurance and consumed with bread prior to battle
or with water before running long distances.11
The
Diegueño people of Baja California took chia seeds on journeys and kept a few
seeds in the mouth, periodically chewing them to maintain their strength.12
The Chumash and Cahuilla peoples in the coastal southern regions of California
cultivated chia for its seeds, which were collected, hulled, and winnowed (separating
the chaff from the seed) by hand.12 One tablespoon of chia seed was
believed to be sufficient to feed a person for a day. Prior to Spanish
colonization, chia seeds were used medicinally to soothe skin conditions, treat
gastrointestinal conditions, lower fevers, and as a poultice for open wounds.10,12
Oil extracted from the seeds was used to treat eye infections and stomach
disorders.8 Chia seed oil was also used for artistic purposes,
primarily in paints and lacquers to create a glossy finish on clay or gourd
vessels.10 After the 16th century, a mucilaginous paste made from chia seeds and water
was used therapeutically to
treat eye obstructions, aid in expectoration during respiratory infections, and
in obstetrics treatments. 7
The
chia seed has been used for culinary purposes in multiple forms: whole, ground,
mucilage, and oil.9,10 Seeds also were ground into flour and used to
make biscuits, cakes, and a porridge or gruel called pinole.12 Traditional foods, such as tortillas and
tamales, were made from chianpinolli,
or roasted and ground chia seed.7,10
Chia
flour was used to make an array of beverages during the height of the Aztec
Empire.10 The most recognized use of chia seeds in the 18th and 19th
centuries was infusing chia seeds in water, which was believed to make alkaline
desert water taste more palatable. Chia fresca, or agua de chia,
was another popular, thirst-quenching beverage that combined chia seeds with
fruit juices.7,10,12 Chia seed-infused beverages were historically
consumed during ceremonies, festive occasions, and holy observances.
Chia seeds
also were used as offerings to the Aztec gods and thus were banned under
European conquerors.8 Chia seed oil was used as the basic ingredient
of ceremonial face or body paint.10 In addition, chia flour was used
to make dough that was formed into the shape of the goddess Chicomecóatl, the
“maker and giver of things necessary to live,” as an offering.
With
the rediscovery of chia as an important food source, modern uses of chia seed
and oil now focus on its omega-3 fatty acid content for nutritional
supplementation. Chia is sold commercially in the form of cold-pressed seed oil
or whole seeds as ingredients for baked goods, snacks, bread, yogurt, and bars.3
Chia seeds are used in livestock fodder to increase the
omega-3 fatty acid content of animal products, such as eggs and poultry.8
Additionally, the meal left over from chia seed oil production has a protein
content suitable for feeding livestock.7
Due to its water-holding capacity and viscosity, chia
seed also is used in foam stabilizers, suspending agents, and emulsifiers for
food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals.8 The mucopolysaccharide in the
seed coat forms a gum that is stable at high temperatures (up to 244°F) and
able to hold water and oil; these properties make it a useful emulsifier in the
food industry.7,8,13
In 1977, Joseph Enterprises, Inc.
(San Francisco, CA) created the Chia Pet, a small hollow-bodied animal figurine
made out of terra cotta.14 Moistened chia seeds are applied to the
grooved ridges on the outside of the figurine, and water is added to the hole
inside the figurine to help the seeds germinate. Within days, the figure grows
a thick coat of chia sprouts. For more than 30 years, Chia Pets have offered
customers amusement and an introductory lesson in cultivating plants. Phytochemicals and Constituents
Chia seed is low in carbohydrates (3.4%)
and high in protein (18.9%) and lipids (31.2%).13 The seed also
contains all essential amino acids and is high in antioxidants, including
tocopherols, phytosterols, and carotenoids.8,11 Chia seed contains
higher amounts of riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine than other edible seeds and
is also mineral-rich, providing calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium,
iron, and zinc.13 Chia seed contains more magnesium, potassium and
phosphorus than common cereal grains and more calcium, magnesium, and potassium
than milk per serving.1,5
Chia seed flour is
used in gluten-free noodles to increase the protein, fat, antioxidant, and mineral
content.13 Furthermore, when added to wheat (Triticum aestivum, Poaceae) bread, chia seed improves overall antioxidant
activity and nutritional content, as well as texture, color, and sensory
profiles.13
Containing
nearly 20% protein, chia seed consumption may serve an important role in preventing
protein energy malnutrition (PEM).5 In comparable serving sizes,
chia seeds have a higher protein content than other seeds such as amaranth and
quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa,
Chenopodiaceae) and common grains like wheat (14%), oats (Avena sativa, Poaceae) (15.3%), and rice (Oryza sativa, Poaceae) (8.5%).3,13 The primary
determinant of a high-quality protein is its digestibility, or the amount of
protein absorbed by the body relative to the amount consumed, also known as its
biological value. For chia seed flour, protein digestibility is nearly 80%,
which is comparable to wheat and oats.15 The absence of gluten
protein and low concentration of prolamins (< 15%), which are plant proteins
high in proline, make chia seed a nutrient-dense pseudocereal that is safe for
individuals with celiac disease and gluten intolerance.3,5,15 Furthermore,
chia seed contains high levels of the amino acids glutamine, arginine, and
aspartic acid.3 In addition to an abundance of these non-essential
amino acids, chia seed contains all nine essential amino acids that the body is
unable to produce and is therefore considered a complete protein, unlike other
plant protein sources such as chickpeas (Cicer
arietinum, Fabaceae).
Omega-6
fatty acids have pro-inflammatory, hypertensive, and prothrombotic properties.16
Omega-3 fatty acids have anti-inflammatory, blood glucose modulating,
lipid-lowering, cardioprotective, and hepatoprotective properties. High dietary
intake of foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids is associated with reduced risk of
cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, autoimmune
diseases, and cancer. For maintaining good health, omega-3 fatty acids should
be incorporated in the diet at higher amounts than omega-6 fatty acids.16
Chia seed is the highest whole-food source
of alpha linolenic acid (ALA), the only plant-based omega-3 essential fatty acid. ALA can be converted in
humans to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which
play a vital role in a number of metabolic processes.2,7,17
The United States Pharmacopoeia defines
chia seed oil as the oil extracted form chia seeds by cold pressing and
excludes the use of solvents or external heat in the extraction process.2
The major constituents of chia seed oil include an abundance of polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFAs), specifically 54%-67% omega-3 ALA and 12%-21% omega-6
linoleic acid.2,8,18 Chia seeds have a 3:1 ratio of omega-3 to omega-6,
which is advantageous for maintaining cardiovascular health and reducing risk
of chronic, inflammatory diseases.2,9,19 In 2009, the European Union
recognized chia seed as a novel food and it is on the United States’ Generally
Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list.2 Consuming 7.3 grams of chia seed
daily can provide 100% of the recommended intake of omega-3 fatty acids in the
form of ALA.8
The
dietary fiber content of chia seeds exceeds that of dried fruits, cereals, or
nuts per 100 grams serving.6 Consuming approximately two tablespoons
(1 oz or about 28 g) of chia seed provide almost 40% of an average person’s
daily fiber intake, as recommended by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).3
Total dietary fiber includes both soluble and insoluble forms that are
important for reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and certain
types of cancer.3 The insoluble fiber in chia seed is composed of
lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, whereas the main type of soluble fiber is
mucilage. The mucilage in chia seed has a high capacity for absorbing water, up
to 27 times its own weight.13 It also provides more dietary fiber
than an equivalent volume of flax (Linum
usitatissimum, Linaceae) seed, which is otherwise comparable in nutritional
and therapeutic benefits.3,13 The soluble fiber and mucilage content
in chia seed may help lower low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, slow the
release of glucose during digestion, and promote satiety. High fiber intake
also promotes gastrointestinal and digestive health including improved
intestinal peristalsis.5
Chia seeds and oil
are known not only for their macronutrient and micronutrient contents, but also
for their antioxidant compounds, mainly phenolic acids and flavonoids.9
These compounds may reduce inflammation and oxidative stress. Phenolic
compounds present in chia have been found to protect against certain diseases,
such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes.20 Rosmarinic acid is
the most prevalent polyphenol in chia seed; other important polyphenols are chlorogenic
and caffeic acids, which play a crucial role in protection against free
radicals and inhibit fat, protein, and DNA peroxidation.3,20,21 Researchers
have found that these polyphenols and others found in chia seed and seed oil
(e.g., rosmarinic, protocatechuic, and gallic acids) have significant
antioxidant capacity.21 The flavonols myricetin, quercetin, and
kaempferol are other active compounds present in chia seeds.8,9 Flavonols
are known for their antioxidant, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and
anti-thrombotic effects.16,22 Isoflavones, specifically, daidzin,
glycitin, genistin and genistein, have also been detected in chia seeds.6,8
Chia’s wide range of polyphenols act to prevent oxidation when consumed and
also naturally protect and preserve the seeds themselves.5
Modern Research
Chia
seed and seed oil has been evaluated for their potential health benefits
related to chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, obesity, and
cancer.13 These benefits are attributed to the high concentration of
essential fatty acids, dietary fiber, proteins, antioxidants, carotenoids, and
minerals.13
Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors
The
nutrients and bioactive compounds found in chia seed flour have demonstrated
cardioprotective effects by reducing disease risk factors in humans.
Hypertension, a known risk factor for developing cardiovascular disease, is
generally asymptomatic, and drug therapies may lead to negative adverse effects.
Diet interventions can offer a complementary approach.23 Supplementation
with ground chia seed for 12 weeks was shown to reduce blood pressure in
individuals with treated and untreated mild hypertension. Participants in the
study were randomly assigned to one of three groups: consumption of chia with
previously used medications (CHIA-MD), chia without medications (CHIA-NM), or a
placebo group with medications (PLA-MD). Subjects in the two chia treatment
groups consumed 35 grams of chia flour per day. The PLA-MD group received 35
grams of roasted wheat bran as a placebo. Researchers found that the two chia
groups had significantly reduced diastolic and systolic blood pressures from
baseline. The CHIA-MD group also had significantly reduced total blood pressure
from baseline.23
Chia
seed consumption also has shown promise for reducing cholesterol levels. Though
the mechanism of action is unclear, these effects are attributed largely to
chia seed’s high levels of dietary fiber and omega-3 fatty acids like ALA.8
However, recent research has demonstrated that chia proteins can block HMG-CoA
reductase, a key compound involved in cholesterol synthesis.13 In a
study of overweight and obese adults, consuming 35 grams of chia seed flour
daily resulted in lower levels of total cholesterol and very low-density
lipoprotein (VLDL) and an increase in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels. 13
ALA
is converted in the body to EPA and DHA, which act to optimize cell membrane
structure, cell function, and cellular responses. To date, only one clinical
trial has shown that chia seed intake significantly increases blood levels of
EPA. A 2015 systematic review assessed the effects of consumption of whole or
ground chia seeds on preventing or managing risk factors associated with heart
disease.24 The review focused on seven clinical trials published
between 2007 and 2013. The chia seed preparations used in the studies varied in
quantity (4-50 g per day) and type (whole or milled). There were also
differences in sample size, methodology, and participant characteristics (e.g.,
diabetic, obese, or hypertensive). Therefore, the authors state that the
findings on chia consumption and the effects of reducing cardiovascular risk
factors are inconclusive. They recommend additional randomized, double-blind,
placebo-controlled clinical trials on the consumption of chia to obtain
reliable results and to determine an appropriate dose for cardioprotective
benefits.24
More
recently, a meta-analysis and systematic review on the clinical effects of chia
seed on various health parameters determined that the overall, pooled effects
of chia seed were not significant. However, in a subgroup analysis, pooled
effects on postprandial blood glucose, HDL levels, and diastolic blood pressure
were statistically significant when higher doses of chia seed were used (> 40
g daily). Studies using ground chia seed resulted in more favorable outcomes with
regard to systolic blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, and anthropometric
and lipid profiles compared with whole chia seed. However, only whole chia seed
significantly reduced postprandial blood glucose. A subgroup analysis that
compared the clinical effects of Salba® (Salba Smart Natural
Products; Littleton, Colorado) chia seed, a proprietary varietal, with those of
conventional chia seed found no significant differences between the two. Based
on the subgroup analyses, the authors hypothesized that higher doses of chia
seed may elicit greater clinical effects, including the reduction of
postprandial blood glucose and HDL levels and the increase in total
cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and triglyceride levels. The review
also revealed that a lack of a suitable comparator (such as wheat, oat, or
poppy [Papaver spp., Papaveraceae]
seed) may have resulted in a lack of distinctly measureable and comparable
clinical benefits. All trials included in the review were determined to have
unclear or high risk of bias. To improve the quality of clinical evidence for
chia seed, researchers suggest increasing the sample size, ensuring adequate
blinding, and randomly assigning participants.25
Nutritional
strategies to prevent excess energy or caloric intake are essential to address
rising levels of obesity and obesity-related diseases. Obesity is a condition
that has been associated with a state of chronic oxidative stress. Reactive
oxygen species damage cell proteins, lipids, and DNA, and can result in
impaired function and, potentially, cell death. Obesity also impedes the body’s
enzymatic antioxidant system, reducing the activities of catalase, superoxide
dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase.26 Additionally,
obesity is associated with a reduction in levels of protective thiols,
vitamins, minerals, and polyphenols.
Research
indicates that chia seed consumption is associated with reductions in appetite and
high blood glucose levels. Regular consumption of protein-rich chia seed
appears to have the potential to help overweight individuals lose weight. In a
randomized crossover study assessing chia seed consumption and effects on acute
satiety, 24 participants were given three different mid-morning snacks: plain yogurt,
plain yogurt with 7 g chia seed, and plain yogurt with 14 g chia seed. Throughout
the study period, visual analogue scales (VAS) were used to assess hunger,
satiety, and desire for sugary foods. Both the 7 g and 14 g chia seed yogurt groups
had increased feelings of satiety and reduced hunger.27
A double-blind,
randomized, controlled trial that assessed the effects of chia seed consumption
on body weight, visceral obesity, and obesity-related risk factors included 77
overweight and obese adults with type 2 diabetes.17 Participants
were divided into two parallel groups, both of which followed a six-month
calorie-restricted diet. The experimental group received 30 g/1,000 kcal/day of
Salba chia seeds, and the control group received 36 g/1,000 kcal/day of an oat
bran-based cereal. At the conclusion of the study, participants consuming chia
lost more weight (P = 0.020), had a
greater reduction in waist circumference (P
= 0.027), and had lower C-reactive protein levels (P = 0.045) than those in the oat-bran control group.17
A
study on chia seed’s effects on weight loss and various disease risk factors in
overweight adults found that chia seed consumption significantly increased
plasma ALA levels. However, consumption of 50 grams per day of chia seed had no
effect on weight loss or cardiovascular
disease risk factors
(e.g., blood pressure, HDL, LDL, total cholesterol, or blood triglyceride
levels).28
Another randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled
study assessed
the effects of chia seed supplementation on disease risk factors in overweight
women.28 For 10 weeks, participants consumed 25 grams per day of
ground or whole chia seeds or a placebo. Multiple outcome measures were assessed,
and researchers observed a 58% and 39% increase in plasma ALA and EPA levels,
respectively, in the ground chia treatment group.
Glucose Levels
Over
time, high blood glucose levels can result in diabetes. In a randomized,
controlled, dose-response trial, researchers assessed postprandial glycemic
response in 13 healthy participants who consumed bread supplemented with chia seed
flour. Participants consumed nine test meals that included bread supplemented
with different doses (7, 15, and 24 g) of whole or ground chia.30 Bread
without chia was used as the control. Researchers concluded there was a
significant dose-dependent effect on reduction of blood glucose levels for both
whole and ground chia seeds compared to the control. There were no significant
differences in reduction of blood glucose levels between the same doses of whole
and ground chia seed. This may indicate that the hypoglycemic properties are
more dependent on the quantity of seeds than the form of seeds, but future
research is needed to confirm these findings.30
In an
outpatient clinic of the Risk Factor Modification Centre at St. Michael’s
Hospital in Toronto, Canada, 20 type 2 diabetes patients participated in a single-blind,
crossover, randomized controlled trial to determine whether supplementing with
Salba chia seed, in addition to conventional dietary treatments, is associated
with a decrease in cardiovascular risk factors.31 Patients were
randomly divided into two groups and given approximately 40 grams of freshly ground
chia seed or wheat bran (control) baked into specially formulated breads, which
were similar in appearance. After 12 weeks, which included a four- to six-week
washout phase to mitigate carryover effects, patients who consumed chia seed experienced
statistically significant reductions from baseline in systolic blood pressure,
C-reactive protein, von Willebrand factor (a glycoprotein), hemoglobin A1c, and
fibrinogen, but not with the control treatment. Additionally, those who consumed
chia seed had a twofold increase in blood levels of ALA and EPA levels (P < 0.05) after 12 weeks.31
Other Uses
Carbohydrate-loading
refers to the practice of increasing dietary intake of carbohydrates prior to
athletic events that last more than 90 minutes. This intake results in greater
capacity of muscle glycogen stores and aids in athletic performance.18
A 2011 study compared the performance of six male marathon runners who were
given two different carbohydrate-loading treatments: a commercial sports drink
and the same commercial sports drink supplemented with chia. The runners
participated in two trials in a crossover, counterbalanced, repeated-measure
design with a two-week washout period between testing to allow participants to
recover from the intense exercise and to avoid any carryover effects from the
treatments. While the researchers found no statistically significant differences
between the control and the test groups in performance parameters, the athletes
in the chia group significantly decreased their dietary intake of sugar while
boosting their intake of omega-3 fatty acids compared to the control group. According
to the researchers, this indicates that the chia drink may be a healthier
option for athletes who choose to carbohydrate-load.18
Chia
seed oil is also used topically. Approximately 30% of patients with diabetes or
end-stage renal disease (ESRD) suffer from skin disorders such as pruritus (abnormally
dry, itchy skin), which is characterized by itchy, dry skin and inflammatory
lesions caused by scratching.22 A study followed five patients with
these conditions (three with diabetes; two with ESRD) and five patients without
these conditions, all of whom exhibited pruritus, for eight weeks. A topical
oil and water emulsion containing 4% chia seed oil was applied to affected
skin. Lotion without chia seed oil was used on participants as placebo. After eight
weeks of application, statistically significant improvements in skin hydration,
chronic itching, and prurigo nodularis
(hard, itchy lumps on the skin) were observed in the treatment group with
diabetes and ESRD, while similar significant improvements in skin hydration and
epidermal permeability were also observed in the group of patients without
these conditions.22
Consumer Considerations
Once a major food crop of indigenous peoples of Mexico
and Guatemala, chia is now widely cultivated and commercialized as an oilseed
crop for its ALA content and antioxidant properties.16 The use of chia as
a food ingredient holds promise in the area of functional foods. Aside from its
nutrient density, chia seed can help with weight management by increasing
satiety and offers significant amounts of anti-inflammatory omega-3 fatty acids,
which are associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and
chronic inflammatory conditions.
Although chia seed and seed oil are rich sources of ALA,
the rate of conversion from ALA to EPA and DHA is inefficient, as enzymes
necessary for this conversion are easily disrupted or depleted. It is estimated
that 5% to 10% of ALA is converted to EPA , but less than 2% to 5% is converted
to DHA. Numerous variables can decrease conversion rates.32 Delta-6-desaturase, a key enzyme in the conversion of ALA to EPA, is
dependent upon adequate levels of magnesium, zinc, niacin (B3), or
pyridoxine (B6), which are cofactors for converting ALA to EPA and
DHA.32 While conversion of ALA to DHA and EPA is slow and incomplete,
it appears to be sufficient to meet the needs of healthy people, given adequate
intake of ALA and sufficient levels of magnesium, zinc, niacin, and pyridoxine.
Consumption of whole or ground chia seed has shown no
evidence of toxicity or allergenic effects.3,4 However, the 2000 US
Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommended chia consumption not to exceed 48
grams per day.9,16 This may be due to the fact that previous clinical
studies had not used doses above 50 grams per day, and thus the potential adverse
effects had not been adequately studied.
The
PUFA content as well as the low concentration of tocopherol and phenolic
compounds account for the low oxidative stability of chia oil. In one study, the
tocopherol content of chia seed oil dropped by 30% after 300 days.18
Chia seed oil is best kept in the refrigerator after opening and should be used
quickly.
Nutrient Profile33
Macronutrient Profile (Per 1 ounce of chia
seeds)
138 calories
4.7 g
protein
11.9
g carbohydrate
8.7 g
fat
Secondary Metabolites (Per 1 ounce of
chia seeds)
Excellent source of:
Manganese:
0.8 mg (40% DV)
Dietary
fiber: 9.8 g (39.2% DV)
Phosphorus:
244 mg (24.4% DV)
Magnesium:
95 mg (23.8% DV)
Very good source of:
Calcium:
179 mg (17.9% DV)
Thiamin:
0.2 mg (13.3% DV)
Niacin:
2.5 mg (12.5% DV)
Iron:
2.2 mg (12.2% DV)
Also provides:
Folate:
14 mcg (3.5% DV)
Potassium:
115 mg (3.3% DV)
Riboflavin:
0.05 mg (3% DV)
Trace amounts of:
Vitamin
C: 0.5 mg (0.8% DV)
Vitamin
E: 0.14 mg (0.7% DV)
Vitamin
A: 15 IU (0.3% DV) DV =
Daily Value as established by the US Food and Drug Administration, based on a
2,000-calorie diet.
Quinoa Chia
Edamame Veggie Burger34
Adapted from Chef
Andrew Coleman
Ingredients:
- 2
cups quinoa
- 1
cup brown rice
- 2
ounces chia seeds
- 4
ounces canned black beans, drained and rinsed
- 7
cups low-sodium vegetable stock or broth
- 4
cloves roasted garlic, smashed
- 4
ounces edamame beans, shelled and blanched
- 1
bunch scallions, chopped
- 1
bunch chives, chopped
- ½
bunch parsley, chopped
- 3
ounces grated parmesan cheese
- 4
ounces of button mushrooms, chopped and sautéed in olive oil
- Salt
to taste
Directions:
- Place
quinoa, rice, chia seeds, black beans, and vegetable stock into a rice cooker
or pressure cooker and cook according to manufacturer settings. After
cooking, let the mixture sit covered for 30 to 60 minutes to absorb all
liquid.
- Place
1 ½ cup of mixture in food processor and puree.
- In
a large bowl, mix the pureed mixture with the remainder of the cooked
mixture, along with all other ingredients, until thoroughly combined. Season
to taste with salt.
- Form
burger patties and grill or sear until browned on each side.
|
Image credits:
All
photos ©2020 Steven Foster
Illustration
of Salvia hispanica and a woman. From
The Florentine codex (1575-1577) by
Fr. Bernardino de Sahagun. References - Hrncic
MK, Ivanovski M, Cor D, and Knez Z. Chia seeds (Salvia hispanica): An
overview — phytochemical profile, isolation methods, and application. Molecules. 2020;25(11):1-19.
- Parker
J, Schellenberger AN, Roe AL, et al. Therapeutic perspectives on chia seed and
its oil: A review. Planta Medica.
2018;84:9-10.
- Muñoz LA, Cobos A, Diaz O, Aguilera JM. Chia seed (Salvia hispanica): An ancient grain and
a new functional food. Food Reviews
International. 2013;29:394-308.
- Kaiser
C, Ernst M. Center for Crop Diversification Crop Profile: Chia.
Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Food and
Environment; 2016.
- Ullah
R, Nadeem M, Khalique M, et al. Nutritional and therapeutic perspectives of
Chia (Salvia hispanica): A review. Journal
of Food Science Technology. 2016;53(4):1750-1758.
- Kulczynski
B, Kobus-Cisowska J, Taczanowski M, et al. The chemical composition and nutritional
value of chia seedsd — Current state of knowledge. Nutrients.
2019;11(1242).
- Hershey
DR. Don’t just pet your chia. Science
Activities. 1995;32(2):8-12.
- deFalco
B, Amato M, Lanzotti V. Chia seeds products: An overview. Phytochemisty Review. 2017;16:745-760.
- Valdivia-López
MA, Tecante A. Chia (Salvia hispanica):
A review of native Mexican seed and its nutritional and functional properties. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research.
2015;75:54-71.
- Cahill
J. Ethnobotany of chia, Salvia hispanica
L. (Lamiaceae). Economic Botany.
2003;57(4):604-618.
- Illian
TG, Casey JC, Bishop PA. Omega 3 chia seed loading as a means of carbohydrate
loading. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2011;25(1):61-65.
- Immel
DL. Plant Guide: Chia. Washington DC: United States Department of
Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service; 2003.
- Grancier
M, Martino HS, and Gonzalez de Mejia E. Chia seed (Salvia hispanica) as
a source of proteins and bioactive peptides with health benefits — A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and
Food Safety. 2019;18:480-499.
- Edwards
O. Chia Pet. Smithsonian Magazine.
December 2007. Available at: www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/chia-pet-180308610/.
Accessed August 24, 2017.
- Kačmárová
K, Lavová B, Socha P, Urminská D. Characterization of protein fractions and
antioxidant activity of chia seeds (Salvia
hispanica L.). Potravinarstvo.
2016;10(1):78-82.
- Ali
NM, Yeap SK, Ho WY, Beh BK, Tan SW, Tan SG. The promising future of chia, Salvia hispanica L. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology. 2012;171956.
- Vuksan
V, Jenkins AL, Brissette C, et al. Salba-chia (Salvia hispanica) in the
treatment of overweight obese patients with type 2 diabetes: A double-blind
randomized controlled trial. Nutrition,
Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases. 2017;27:138-146.
- Bodoira RM, Penci MC, Ribotta PD, Martínez ML. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil stability:
Study of the effect of natural antioxidants. LWT — Food Science and Technology. 2017;75:107-113.
- Porras-Loaiza
P, Jiménez-Munguía MT, Sosa-Morales ME, Palou E, López-Malo A. Physical
properties, chemical characterization and fatty acid composition of Mexican
chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds. International Journal of Food Science and
Technology. 2014;49:571-577.
- Pandey
KB, Rizvi SI. Plant polyphenols as dietary antioxidants in human health and
disease. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular
Longevity. 2009;2(5):270-278.
- da
Silva Marineli R, Moraes ÉA, Lenquiste SA, Godoy AT, Eberlin MN, Maróstica MR.
Chemical characterization and antioxidant potential of Chilean chia seeds and
oil (Salvia hispanica L.). LWT – Food Science and Technology.
2014;59:1304-1310.
- Jeong
SK, Park HJ, Park BD, Kim I. Effectiveness of topical chia seed oil on pruritus
of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients and healthy volunteers. Ann Dermatol. 2010;22(2):143-148.
- Toscano
LT, Oliveira da Silva CS, Toscano LT, Monteiro de Almeida AE, Santos AdC, Silva
AS. Chia flour supplementation reduces blood pressure in hypertensive subjects.
Plant Foods Hum Nutr.
2014;69:392-398.
- de
Souza Ferreira C, de Sousa Fomes LdF, Santo da Silva GE, Rosa G. Effect of chia
seed (Salvia hispanica L.)
consumption on cardiovascular risk factors in humans: A systematic review. Nutrición Hospitalaria. 2015;32(5):1909-1918.
- Teoh SL,
Lai NM, Vanichkulpitak P et al. Clinical evidence on dietary supplementation
with chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.): A systematic review and
meta-analysis. Nutrition Reviews. 2018;76(4):219-242.
- da Silva Marineli R, Lenquiste SA, Moraes ÉA, Maróstica
Jr. MR. Antioxidant
potential of dietary chia seed and oil (Salvia
hispanica L.) in diet-induced obese rats. Food Research International. 2015;76:666-674.
- Ayaz
A, Akyol A, Inan-Eroglu E, et al. Chia seed (Salvia hispanica) added
yogurt reduces short-term food intake and increases satiety: a randomized
controlled trial. Nutrition Research and Practice. 2017;11(5):412-418.
- Nieman
DC, Cayea EJ, Austin MD, Henson DA, McAnulty SR, Jin F. Chia seed does not
promote weight loss or alter disease risk factors in overweight adults. Nutrition Research. 2009;29:414-418.
- Nieman DC, Gillitt N, Jin F, et al. Chia seed
supplementation and disease risk factors in overweight women: A metabolomics
investigation. J Alt Complement Med.
2012;18(7):700-708.
- Ho H,
Lee AS, Jovanonvski E, Jenkins AL, DeSouza R, Vuksan V. Effect of whole and
ground Salba seeds (Salvia hispanica
L.) on postprandial glycemia in healthy volunteers: A randomized controlled,
dose-response trial. Eur J Clin Nutr.
2013;67:786-788.
- Vuksan
V, Whitman D, Sievenpiper J, et al. Supplementation of conventional therapy
with the novel grain Salba (Salvia hispanica) improves major and
emerging cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(11):2804-2810.
- Davis,
Brenda RD. Vegetarian’s challenge — Optimizing essential fatty acid status. Today’s
Dietitian. 2010;12(2):22. Available at: www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/020810p22.shtml.
Accessed March 7, 2020.
- Basic
Report: 12006, Seeds, chia seeds, dried. United States Department of
Agriculture Agricultural Research Service website. Available at: https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3610.
Accessed August 23, 2017.
- Coleman
A. Quinoa chia edamame veggie burger recipe. Available at:www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/quinoa-chia-edamame-veggie-burger/. Accessed March 4, 2020.
|