Issue:
113
Page: 46-61
Medicinal Fungi: Chemistry, Activity, and Product Assurance
by Christopher Hobbs
HerbalGram.
2017; American Botanical Council
Considering
the total estimated number of fungal species (about 5.1 million),1
it is no surprise that among them are species that produce important compounds
(e.g., penicillin) that form the basis of several classes of medicinal
products, such as antibiotics and immune-enhancers, as well as some species
that are a danger to human health (e.g., Aspergillus and Candida
species).2 Mushrooms, such as reishi (also known
as ling zhi; Ganoderma lucidum, Ganodermataceae), have been used
medicinally in Asia for centuries.3,4 Complementing this rich
history of use, numerous scientific studies have been performed on mushroom
extracts for their potential health benefits. Many of these studies have been
performed using cell culture assays and animal models,5,6 but there
is a growing body of evidence from human clinical trials as well. For example, results from human
clinical trials suggest that mushroom preparations may be beneficial as a
supportive part of cancer care. Researchers from Japan have found that certain
mushroom extracts may help improve the quality of life and five-year survival
rates of patients with gastrointestinal cancers undergoing chemotherapy.7,8
The first US National Institutes of Health (NIH)-funded phase 1 studies of the
anticancer and immune-supportive effects of fungal preparations in patients
with breast cancer also have shown positive results.9 Another trial
found that women taking a turkey tail (Trametes versicolor,
Polyporaceae) preparation after standard chemotherapy and radiotherapy had
improved immune status compared with those receiving standard care alone.10 More clinical trials are needed to
answer some of the basic questions that arise regarding medicinal mushroom
preparations, such as which species are the most effective for a certain
condition, the optimal extraction methods to retain as much biological activity
as possible, and the appropriate dose and dosage for a wide variety of
patients. Still, results from human clinical trials of mushrooms have been
promising, and this growing research base has helped ignite interest in
fungi-based products in the dietary and food supplement industry in the United States
and other countries.
Fungal Constituents
The cell walls of fungi are complex and
dynamic, and their constituent parts depend on environmental conditions and
genetic factors. Most fungal cell walls are made up of more than 90%
polysaccharides,11 a class of compounds that includes α-glucans and β-glucans, among others. Fungal glucans have been the subject of a
considerable amount of research, and extensive pharmacokinetic, in vitro, in
vivo, and human studies are available in the literature.12 β-Glucans
The most-studied fungal components are the β-glucans
and β-glucan complexes — formations of β-glucans and other
molecules, such as proteins, fatty acids, and chitin, which add toughness and
flexibility to the cells.
β-glucan and β-glucan complexes compose up
to 50% (by dry weight) of the cell walls.11,13
β-glucans are simply glucose polymers with the
glucose molecules attached in a specific manner (branched or unbranched). -glucans
are named according to the location of the bonds that hold together the chain
of glucose molecules (Figure 1). For example, “1,3-β-D-glucan” indicates a
polysaccharide consisting of a chain of β-D-glucose*
molecules linked by bonds at the first and third carbon atoms.
In fungal species, 1,3-β-glucans occur with varying degrees
of branching and with side chains attached at various points (Figure 2). Both 1,3-β- and 1,6-β-linkages are present in
fungal species — a characteristic unique to fungi — but the style of branching
and spatial architecture vary considerably from species to species.13-15 In
basidiomycetes and ascomycetes (the two main groups of medicinal fungi), the
main central scaffolding of the cell wall is made up of 1,3-β-glucans
and 1,3:1,6-β-glucans bound to chitin and chitosan by
1,4 linkages.16,17
The chemical structures and spatial arrangements of β-glucans can have an impact on various
properties of the compounds. Some β-glucans are soluble in water, and some are
not, depending on the number and character of the branches.18 Fungal β-glucans (both linear 1,3-β-glucans and
branched 1,3:1,6-β-glucans) have tertiary structures, such as the triple helix
structure, which has been linked to increased biological activity.14,19
β-glucans and β-glucan complexes have shown
immune-stimulating effects20 and a high level of safety.21 Recently, there has
been an explosion of research interest in the role of β-glucans
from fungi, including yeasts, in human adaptive immunity.22-24 Over hundreds of
millions of years, animals and plants have developed exquisitely evolved
sensing and response pathways to fungi.24 The ability to sense fungi cell wall
components, such as 1,3:1,6-β-glucans,
is facilitated by specific receptors (e.g., dectin-1 receptors in the gut and
on immune effector cells like macrophages25,26), a process that is necessary
for protective fungal-mediated immunomodulation.27
Besides the glucan-chitin complexes, cross-linked proteins
form part of the structural matrix throughout the fungal cell wall.28 The outer
portion of the cell walls are composed mostly of mannans and glycoproteins,
which are the most important antigenic components of fungi. (An antigenic
component enables the organism sensing fungal glucans to produce an immune
response, especially through the production of antibodies.) However, the
immunomodulating effects of fungi after ingestion by vertebrates and
invertebrates likely are due primarily to the β-glucan polymers, as they are
not found in animals.29 This process (i.e., animal immune cells recognizing
fungal β-glucans as “foreign” and thus producing an immune response) is known
as innate pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) recognition.
α-Glucans
α-glucans are the other well-known glucans
in plants and fungi. Examples of α-glucans include structural fibers (e.g.,
1,3-α-glucans that are often attached to
1,3:1,6-α-glucans40), starch (a 1,4-α-glucan),
and the glucose storage molecule glycogen (which contains 1,4-α
and 1,6-α-glucans).
Amylose, a component of starch, is known to be present in
small quantities in the spores of some fungal species, presumably for blocking
oxygen uptake to slow metabolism and prolong survival.41 Glycogen is a highly
branched energy storage molecule that is similar to animal glycogen and is
present in fungal cells at levels of 5-10%42,43 and up to 18% in some fungi as
an energy source for sporulation.44
These α-glucans are ubiquitous in the plant and fungi
kingdoms and have not shown to be as biologically active as the α-glucans
specific to fungi and yeasts.45
Low-Molecular-Weight Compounds
Fungi also contain a variety of low-molecular-weight
compounds, such as terpenes, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, fatty acids, and
proteins. These compounds are found mostly in the cytoplasm within the cell
wall. Well-known low-molecular-weight compounds include terpenes from reishi,
phenolic hericenones from lion’s mane (Hericium erinaceus, Hericiaceae),
cordycepin from Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ophiocordycipitaceae) and Cordyceps
militaris (Clavicipitaceae), and many other compounds.6
Knowledge of low-molecular-weight chemistry in fungi is
still incomplete, since nearly all the evidence for biological activity comes
from preliminary in vivo and in vitro studies. However, considerable research
has been published on some low-molecular-weight compounds, particularly the
triterpenes that are key components of reishi.46
Mycelia vs. Fruiting Bodies: Differences and Considerations
According to records from centuries-old herbals and
pharmacopeias, fungal products throughout history have been produced primarily
from the actual mushroom (i.e., the “fruiting body” or sporocarp, which is a
special, morphologically distinct reproductive structure produced by each
fungal species).3 The medicinal uses of at least 10 different fungal fruiting
bodies in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 CE to 220 CE) were mentioned in Shen
Nong’s herbal classic.47 There is also documentation of the cultivation of some
species. For example, the cultivation of wood ear (Auricularia auricula-judae,
Auriculariaceae) and shiitake (Lentinula edodes, Omphalotaceae) — both of which
are grown on wood for their fruiting bodies48 — was first mentioned as early as
600 CE and 1000 CE, respectively.
Today, many commercial products are made from the mycelium,‡
the vegetative part of fungi, primarily for its cost-effectiveness and
convenience. (The dominant phase of fungi is known as the mycelial or
vegetative phase.) Mushroom mycelium of many species can be grown rapidly on
sterilized grains such as rice (Oryza sativa, Poaceae) with less effort and
cost than collecting fruiting bodies from the wild or cultivating fruiting
bodies, the formation of which requires waiting for ideal conditions when grown
on grain or other substrates. In cultivation trials of Pleurotus spp.
(Pleurotaceae) grown on leftover beer grains (a protein- and nutrient-rich
mixture that contained additives such as wheat [Triticum aestivum, Poaceae]
bran), researchers reported a fruiting body conversion efficiency of
approximately 19% — the highest efficiency found among tested substrates.49
Comparatively, grain-grown mycelia used in dietary supplements provide manufacturers
with roughly 40-95% biomass utilization, depending on the amount of mycelia and
substrate in the finished product. This is because all the mycelium and
substrate is harvested, heated, dried, ground, and encapsulated.
Chemical and Pharmacological Differences
Mycelia have been reported to possess a similar array of
active compounds as the corresponding fruiting bodies.51-53 However, some
researchers have found higher levels of β-glucans in the fruiting bodies of
tested species. Using a calorimetric method, researchers found 3.7 times more
1,3:1,6-β-glucans and 2.3 times more total
β-glucan content in the fruiting bodies of shiitake than in the mycelium of the
same species. In general, total β-glucan content was higher in the fruiting
bodies of other tested species as well, with the exception of the common button
mushroom (Agaricus bisporus, Agaricaceae), which contained more β-glucans in
the mycelium than in the fruiting bodies.54
Even within the same species, the structure of β-glucans in
the fruiting body may differ from the structure of β-glucans in the mycelium.
Calonje et al. (1996) found “striking differences” in sugar linkages and the
conformations (spatial arrangements) of β-glucan polysaccharides between the
fruiting bodies and mycelium of the same strain of A. bisporus.55 Such
structural differences may be due in part to the varying media upon which the
mycelium is grown.20,56
More studies are needed to answer clearly for each medicinal
species whether the fruiting body or the mycelium has consistently higher
levels of active compounds, and how certain variables (e.g., growing conditions
and other factors) may influence these levels.
Comparing Biological Activity
One recent study57 examined the biological activities of
different types of medicinal mushroom products purchased from natural health
food stores in the United States. A majority (60%) of the 39 tested products
contained ground fungi (mostly mycelia on grain) rather than hot-water extracts
or steam-heated mushroom powders. The researchers found that the hot-water
extracts had significantly higher immunological activity (as determined by the
activation of toll-like receptor 2 [TLR2], an immune receptor) and
“immune-enhancing potential” (as determined by the induction of tumor necrosis
factor-α [TNF-α], an immunochemical) than the products containing ground, raw
fungal material. This preliminary study suggests that heating (and perhaps
concentrating) the fungal material increases TNF-α activity in lab cultures,
and does not neccesarily imply better clinical outcomes.
Researchers have discovered other receptors that bind fungal
polymers on a variety of immune effector cells, such as macrophages,
neutrophils, eosinophils, and natural killer cells, and on immune tissue in the
gut (e.g., dectin-1 receptors and complement receptor 3 [CR3]).25,58,59 β-glucans binding to these receptors could
activate more diverse immune pathways than if they bound to TLR2 only. For
instance, it is known that both dectin-1 and toll-like receptors work together
to activate macrophage function in response to pathogenic mycobacteria.60
In vivo research61,62 has shown that, after oral
administration, large yeast 1,3:1,6-β-glucans
bind to receptors (e.g., dectin-1) expressed on the surface of intestinal
macrophages. The macrophages then internalize the β-glucans
through endocytosis and shuttle them to the spleen, lymph nodes,
reticuloendothelial tissues, and bone marrow. Once in the marrow, macrophages
degrade the β-glucans and secrete smaller, biologically
active products that bind to bone complement receptors (e.g., CR3) of marrow
granulocytes, confering an enhanced ability to kill tumor cells. Human macrophages
act similarly in response to fungal β-glucans,
and dectin-1 receptors strongly enhance immune response to fungal pathogens.63
However, one recent study indicates that CR3 may be more important for
macrophage activation and endocytosis of β-glucans.64
While it is true that the fruiting bodies of fungi are in
essence made up of densely packed mycelia, the mycelium in a fruiting body is
not identical to the mycelium in other stages of growth and development.
Lacourt et al. (2002)65 found significant differences in gene expression in
approximately 33% of the genes studied in the whitish truffle (Tuber borchii,
Tuberaceae) during morphogenesis (i.e., the transformation of the mycelium
vegetative phase to a mature fruiting body phase). Expression of glutamine
synthetase and glucan 1,3-β-glucosidase, among others, was highly up-regulated.
The researchers concluded that amino acid biosynthesis, cell wall synthesis,
and other protein syntheses were all strikingly altered during morphogenesis.
In P. ostreatus, Lee et al.66 found that only 5.3% of unigenes were commonly
expressed in both stages (out of 1,256 total unigenes identified). Many other
authors have reported on the differences in gene expression between the
mycelium and the fruiting body of other species, including L. edodes.67,68
Studies comparing the biological activities of different
types of commercial products are rare, and in vitro and in vivo studies do not
always translate to activity and clinical benefits in humans.69 Such results
can be taken as a starting point when selecting products that offer the best
value, along with other criteria, such as traditional uses, extraction methods,
and dosage regimens.
Undigested Grain in Mycelial Products
Given that fruiting bodies and mycelia of fungi species have
the potential to produce similar profiles of active compounds, does it make a
difference if finished consumer products contain one or the other?
In both theoretical and practical terms, a finished consumer
product based on mycelia could potentially contain more starch or glycogen
(derived from the undigested grain) and fewer β-glucans than a finished
consumer product based on fruiting bodies. Thus, some have suggested that the
efficacy and value of commercial medicinal mushroom products may depend on how
much of the substrate upon which the mycelium is grown is consumed by the
fungus and turned into active compounds, and how much of the product is
non-consumed starch and other constituents from the original substrate (or
glycogen stored in the mycelia from the rich source of easy-to-metabolize
starch in the cooked grain).
However, the potential of the finished cultivated mycelial
mass to contain a significant amount of undigested grain after it is harvested,
dried, and milled is a point of controversy. Exactly how much grain a mycelium
can consume when it is fully grown depends on the strain of fungus and how
aggressively it consumes the nutrients, as well as the growing conditions and
the time of harvest. Longer culture times will result in more of the grain
being consumed by the fungus and more fungal growth, but the fungus begins to
terminate the growth process when key nutrients are depleted.
Researchers have investigated the possibility of mycelia
cultivated on grains (e.g., cooked rice), resulting in high starch or glycogen
concentrations originating from undigested grain in the finished product.13,70
In a recent study on β-glucan testing methods,13 researchers
found that of 12 commercial product samples purchased from a natural food
market, half of them had 5% or less measurable β-glucan content. The first two
samples were multi-species mycelial blends, and the others were single species
(e.g., reishi, cordyceps, or chaga [Inonotus obliquus, Hymenochaetaceae]).
These six products had β-glucan (starch/glycogen) contents of 66.4%, 72.5%,
83.2%, 64%, 24.1%, and 70%. When unprocessed fruiting bodies of common
medicinal species were tested by the same methods, most polypores had much
higher β-glucan levels and very low β-glucan levels (hoelen [Wolfiporia cocos,
Polyporaceae] = 74%/0.8%; reishi = 54%/0.2%), whereas some fleshy species had
moderate β-glucan levels but low β-glucan levels (maitake [Grifola frondosa,
Fomitopsidaceae] = 35%/1.3%; shiitake = 27%/0.9%; oyster [P. ostreatus] =
33%/0.4%).
Brauer et al. (2011)71 reported the percentage of α-glucans
(likely glycogen) in shiitake fruiting bodies to be about 2-10%, depending on
the spawn source, strain, and environmental conditions under which they were
grown. McCleary and Draga (2016)13 found that the total α-glucan content of 20
mushroom fruiting body samples varied between 0.4% and 3.4%.
Quality Control of Medicinal Mushroom Products
Testing for β-Glucans
Based on the extensive literature on the activity, clinical
benefits, and safety of fungal β-glucans, a number of tests have been developed
to quantify their levels in mycelia, fruiting bodies, and finished
preparations.13 Although other compounds are likely involved in the
immunomodulating and anticancer effects of mushrooms, mushroom β-glucans (and
complexes of β-glucans, chitin, proteins, and fatty acids) are by far the most
studied fungal components in the published literature.59,86-93
Acid Hydrolysis/Enzymatic Procedures
McCleary and Draga (2016)13 evaluated various methods for
the analysis of β-glucans in mushrooms and mycelial products, including
enzymatic procedures and methods involving a combination of both acid
hydrolysis and enzymatic procedures. They concluded that the most effective,
reliable, and reproducible method across a broad range of mushroom species and
mycelial products was the acid hydrolysis/enzymatic procedure. The acid
hydrolysis/enzymatic method from Megazyme (as described below) for testing the
percentage of β-glucans has been used and published in a number of scientific
studies, adding to its credibility.94-97
Using this procedure, McCleary and Draga13 determined the
total glucan content α and β of various products. First, the fungal
mycelium, fruiting body, or finished product was heated in hydrochloric or
sulfuric acid to 100°C, breaking all the bonds between glucose molecules in all
polysaccharides containing glucose. Enzymes that work specifically on the bonds
between glucose molecules were then added to the mixture to make sure all the
glucose was released from polymers and in a free form. Separately, specific
enzymes that release glucose from starch/glycogen (α-glucan) molecules were blended with the starting test material before
acid and heat treatment, breaking the glucose bonds only in starch/glucose and
not in any of the β-glucans. Since the acid/heat treatment broke all glucose
bonds, subtracting the percentage of starch (α-glucan) determined by this
enzymatic treatment from the total glucose derived from β-glucans and α-glucans
gave an accurate percentage of β-glucans in the tested material.98 Ideally, the
accuracy of this method should be confirmed by direct measurement of α-glucans.
Glucan Enzymatic Method Assay
Researchers have also used the glucan enzymatic method (GEM)
assay to quantify fungal β-glucans in extracts and formulated products. This
process uses the enzyme lyticase, followed by treatment with other enzymes that
convert β-glucans to glucose, which is then measured by another enzymatic
method.99 However, the GEM assay seems to underestimate the amount of
β-glucans,13 which likely has to do with the insolubility of approximately 80%
of the β-glucans (unless the cell walls are treated with acid to break their
bond to chitin and other polymers).100
Fungitell Test/Factor G Test
Another published test for fungal β-glucans is also widely
used for medical applications. The Fungitell test (Viracor-IBT Laboratories)
was approved in 2003 by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for detection
of serum 1,3:1,6-β-glucans as a diagnostic tool to confirm
invasive fungal infections.101,102 This quantitative test is based on the Limulus
factor G test, and is specific only to 1,3-β-glucans. (Factor G is the name of
the enzyme that recognizes the 1,3-β-glucans.)
Numerous studies have shown the specificity and accuracy of the method.103
The factor G-based test also has been used to identify
1,3-β-glucans in mycelium culture supernatants (the nutrient-containing liquid
that is separated from the mycelium by centrifugation).103 Nagi et al. (1993)104
found that the reactivity of factor G triggered by 1,3-β-glucans was not only
dependent on the amount in the solution being tested, but also on the
conformation of the 1,3-β-glucans (single helix, triple helix, etc.).
Odabasi et al. (2004)105 found that factor G-based tests
such as the Fungitell test could not differentiate β-glucans
from fungi (1,3:1,6-β-glucans) and β-glucans
from barley (Hordeum vulgare, Poaceae) (1,3-/1,4-β-glucans). This suggests that
the test is less definitive for testing mushroom cultures directly, but
arguably very specific for testing blood serum for fungal β-glucans.
Using the Fungitell test, Yang et al. (2003)106 measured the
concentrations of 1,3-β-glucans in a number of species of medicinal fungi and
found a wide variation in their percentages. More research is needed to
determine the applicability of the Fungitell test for β-glucan
quantification in medicinal species of fungi. Although the test is about 10,000
times more sensitive than acid hydrolysis with enzymatic procedures, the
Fungitell test is most often used to determine the presence of pathogenic fungi
in the blood of immunocompromised individuals. For any utility of the test for
medicinal products, the preparation of the sample (such as pretreatments for
freeing the β-glucans from chitin linkages) should be
carefully optimized.104
Using Multiple Tests
Ultimately, the β-glucan
content of a particular commercial fungi product, how well it enters into the
blood and body tissues, and its potential biological activity should not be
determined by assay of the product alone. Rather, multiple tests should be
used. For example, a blood serum study, such as the Fungitell test, can be used
to determine the level of β-glucans
that reaches the blood and circulates to other parts of the body, including the
bone marrow61,107-109; in vitro studies, as in Coy et al. (2015),57 can be used
to test the immune-stimulating effects of various mushroom extracts; and ex
vivo studies (e.g., in which subjects take mushroom products orally and have
blood, which contains “primed” immune cells, drawn) can be used to check the
cells’ ability to resist the damaging effects of free radicals, or to test
their killing power in an in vitro system with various pathogens or cancer
cells, as in studies published by Tesoriere et al. (2005)110 and Vanky et al.
(1992).111
Testing for Other Compounds
Chemical Tests
Chemical tests, such as high-performance thin-layer
chromatography (HPTLC), can help ensure products contain a substantial and
minimum amount of accepted active compounds, such as β-glucans.
At present, the most promising compounds for substantiation of activity in
medicinal mushroom products are 1,3-β-glucans,
1,3:1,6-β-glucans, starch/glycogen (1,4- and 1,6-α-glucans),
ergosterol, triterpenes, low-molecular-weight compounds like the phenolic
hericenones from lion’s mane, cordycepin, and others.
As for triterpenes, these important low-molecular-weight
molecules, which have a variety of biological activities, are present in
substantial amounts in some species of medicinal mushrooms, such as reishi,112 and
can be identified and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) or HPTLC methods. The sterol ergosterol is highly specific to fungi, and
many studies have been published on methods to quantify the compound, so this
marker can be used for determining how much fungal biomass is in medicinal
mushroom products.113 Along with a standard starch/glycogen test, it is
possible to determine with fair accuracy how much mycelium or fruiting body,
starch, and fillers (e.g., maltodextrin) are in a commercial product. The
iodine starch test also can be used, even at home, to detect excessive starch
contents in products.
Genetic Analyses
In addition to chemical tests, there are an increasing
number of DNA testing options available. For example, with next-generation DNA
sequencing (NGS), a mixture of fungal mycelium and substrate can be tested
semi-quantitatively for various components. These methods will help ensure the
species listed on the label is what is in the product.114 However, these
methods are still under development for the natural products industry.115-117
According to a recent paper by Raja et al. (2017), researchers were able to use
the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), a common DNA marker, to correctly
identify a number of fungal species in commercial products.118
Additional Quality Control Considerations
Contamination
Another issue regarding products made from mycelia or
fruiting bodies is the purity of the source material. When organically grown,
mycelia or fruiting bodies from sources in the United States should be free of
pesticide residues, heavy metals, and fumigants. When sourced from China or
other countries, mushroom products should be checked carefully for proper
species identification, purity, and various other quality parameters.
In 2008, $110 million of mushroom products were imported
into the United States from China. According to a 2009 US Department of
Agriculture (USDA) publication, “Mushroom and fungus products (including dried)
were the predominant vegetable type refused” for entry into the United States
from 2002 to 2004 and from 2007 to 2008 — in this case, for high levels of
pesticide residues.119 The USDA has also issued import alerts for mushroom
products due to contamination with animal filth and insect parts.
In 2004, Singapore and Hong Kong reported heavy metal
contamination and unsafe levels of preservatives such as formaldehyde and
sulfur dioxide in mushroom imports from China.120 In addition, in 2014, a
government survey in Hong Kong found that cadmium levels were above safe
limits.121 In recent years, however, unsafe levels have not been reported in
dried mushroom imports to some Asian countries from China.
Manufacturer Requirements
Considering the possibility of contamination of imported
mushroom products, as well as the possibility of fumigation when entering the
United States, companies should carefully test each batch for proper identity
and potential levels of contaminants. USDA regulations state that dried
mushrooms can enter the United States when they are free of soil, insects,
diseases, and contamination.122
For dietary supplements sold in the United States, numerous
tests are available to manufacturers to ensure their products are free of
contamination of any kind, excessive amounts of filler, or undigested substrate
in the case of grain-grown mycelial products. It is the responsibility of the
manufacturer to perform these frequently on all ingredients, especially when
suppliers or batches change and even if the manufacturer has received a
certificate of analysis (COA) with the ingredient from a supplier. (Inaccurate
and/or falsified COAs from ingredient vendors have been reported in the general
botanical and conventional food trade. Buyers should contact the manufacturer
and ask questions about their purity, activity, and identity testing program.)
Product Labeling
The part of the fungi (mycelium or fruiting body) included
in a commercial product should also be clearly labeled, especially on the
ingredients panel. The American Herbal Products Association, a national trade
association for the botanical products industry, has hosted discussions with
medicinal mushroom manufacturers about whether it is misleading to consumers to
use the term “mushrooms” on products that contain 100% mycelium grown on rice
or other grains. As a general term, “medicinal mushrooms” on the front panel
might alert consumers who may not be familiar with the term “medicinal
mycelium.” On the other hand, the use of “mushrooms” on the ingredients panel
when the product contains 100% mycelium with some (or even a substantial amount
of) residual cooked grain would be misleading, according to some industry
experts. As discussed previously, mushroom fruiting bodies and mycelia both
offer health benefits, but they are not necessarily equivalent.
Conclusion
While assays for β-glucans, ergosterol, starch, and specific
low-molecular-weight compounds in finished products are useful as a starting
point, multiple additional assays (e.g., blood serum studies and bioassays to
assess immune activation and absorption of glucans or other compounds) are
warranted to guarantee the quality and efficacy of medicinal mushroom products.57
The issue of whether mycelium- or fruiting body-derived
products are more active is worth consideration, but many other factors play a
role in the chemistry and biological activity of finished products. Such
factors include, but are not limited to, the species, genotype, and strain of
the organism; the substrate, nutrient availability during growth, atmospheric
conditions, and other environmental factors; as well as the time of harvest in
the growth cycle and methods of drying, extraction, and product manufacturing.
Additional controlled clinical studies are needed to sort out these important
issues in order to maximize the effectiveness of fungal-derived preparations and
products.
Christopher Hobbs, PhD, LAc, is a fourth-generation,
internationally renowned herbalist, licensed acupuncturist, herbal clinician,
research scientist, consultant to the dietary supplement industry, expert
witness, botanist, and mycologist with more than 35 years of experience. He is
the author or co-author of more than 20 books, including Grow It, Heal It
(Rodale Press, 2013), The Peterson Field Guide to Western Medicinal Plants and
Herbs (Houghton Mifflin, 2002), and Medicinal Mushrooms: An Exploration of
Tradition, Healing, & Culture (Book Publishing Co., 2002). Hobbs lectures
on herbal medicine worldwide and has taught at universities and medical
schools, such as Bastyr University, the National University of Natural
Medicine, and, most recently, for seven years at the University of California,
Berkeley (UC Berkeley) as a graduate student instructor and lecturer. He earned
his PhD at UC Berkeley with research and publications in evolutionary biology,
biogeography, phylogenetics, plant chemistry, and ethnobotany. Hobbs is a
longtime member of the American Botanical Council Advisory Board.
SIDEBARS
Species Recognition: Fungal β-Glucans
Are Like Name Tags to Other Species of Plants, Animals, and Microorganisms
Considerable work has been done to characterize the β-glucan molecules in fungi using
conventional methylation techniques, as well as 13C-NMR (carbon-13 nuclear
magnetic resonance) spectroscopy, which allows for the identification of carbon
atoms for structure elucidation.30 This research has yielded specific data on
the branching patterns in various 1,3-β-glucans. Branched 1,3:1,6-β-glucans —
in addition to mannans and glycoproteins31-33 — are thought to play a role in
species recognition among individuals of different strains and clonal lineages
of one species, or between other species of fungi,34 as well as between plants
and fungi,35,36 and between animals (including humans) and fungi.37-39 This
recognition is ancient, has developed over evolutionary time, and can trigger a
complex immune response in humans.37
Turkey Tail Preparations: PSK and PSP
The turkey tail preparation polysaccharide-K (PSK, a
protein-bound polysaccharide) was first produced in the early 1970s in Japan.50
Both PSK and polysaccharide peptide (PSP, a similar turkey tail product from
China) are derived from the mycelium of turkey tail, but the process by which
these products are made is not comparable to current products from mycelia
grown on grain. PSK and PSP are products derived from pure mycelium grown on
nutrient solutions (submerged cultures) that produce a mycelial mass with no
other substrate or organisms present in the finished product. The glucans,
protein-bound glucans, and other non-starch polysaccharides are then highly
purified by a series of extraction steps that involve alkaline solutions.50
PSK and PSP are characterized by their β-glucan contents and
have been shown to have immunomodulatory and anticancer effects. These active,
high-molecular-weight complexes are the most-researched medicinal fungi
products worldwide, with many clinical trials (at least 37 trials have been
conducted on the protective effects of PSK) and in vivo and in vitro research
studies published.9 β-glucans are by far the most widely
characterized and studied fungal components of PSK and PSP. PSK and PSP are still widely available for
sale in Asia, the United States, and other countries. However, they are very
expensive because of the extra processing required, name recognition, and
clinically demonstrated efficacy and safety for supporting immunity in people
with various forms of cancer.
Potential Health Benefits of Grain in Medicinal Mushroom
Products
Grains are a good source of soluble fiber, which is
generally beneficial to health. Arabinoxylans, a common component of the walls
(bran) of a number of grains, are the main non-starch polysaccharide of most
grains.72,73 In addition to arabinoxylans, brown rice bran also contains
phenolic compounds, vitamins, and sterols; its health-giving properties have
been widely cited.74
Arabinoxylans are modified by gut bacteria (so-called
prebiotics) to produce immunologically active compounds. Numerous studies have
reported on the immunological and other beneficial effects of rice bran that is
fermented by shiitake mushrooms — a process that produces active arbinoxylans
and other compounds.75,76 However, fungal culturing of rice or other grains may
not be necessary for the breakdown or creation of immunologically active
oligomeric arabinoxylans if the microbes in the human gut can do the same job.77,78
Most whole cereal grains, particuarly brown rice, can provide a significant
amount of arabinoxylans in the diet and may serve as a cost-effective source of
activated arabinoxylans.
Starch and Glycogen in Medicinal Fungi Products
Fungal mycelia and fruiting bodies produce α-glucans
(starch/glycogen), which are analogous to the starch found, typically at lower
levels, in plants. In many fungal species, starch is, at most, a spore coating
that regulates water loss. Few studies have detected starch in fungal mycelia
or fruiting bodies themselves, and the few that have may have detected
glycogen, not starch.
Many fungi contain substantial quantities of glycogen,79-82
which has been found to be essential for fruiting body formation.83,84 Since
glycogen is structurally similar to starch (in that it has a 1,4-α-glucan
linear structure with 1,6-α branches), the measurement and differentiation of
starch and glycogen in products can be challenging.43 However, one study84
found approximately 3.5% glycogen in Agaricus bisporus mycelium grown in
submerged culture.
A mycelium grown on grains that have an abundance of starch
enables the growing mycelium to build up stores of glycogen as it colonizes and
digests the grain. Excess glycogen is stored in the cytoplasm in the form of
granules called glycogen microbodies. This has also been shown in mycorrhizal
species (i.e., fungal species that have symbiotic relationships with plants)
that have access to free sugar from trees. Glycogen storage granules became
abundant at the tips of a growing mycelium when food, in the form of starch,
was plentiful in the tree cells. This increase in glycogen in the growing
mycelium was directly correlated with a decrease in starch in the roots of the
tree.85
It appears that the “starch” that is cited to be in high
concentrations in finished medicinal mushroom products is a mixture of starch
and glycogen (or, likely, mostly glycogen) inside the mycelium. The amounts of
starch and glycogen depend on the species involved, how thoroughly the mycelium
colonizes the substrate, and how much starch it digests. Still, glycogen is not
likely to be active as an immunomodulator any more than starch is, and so
supplying an overabundance of starch for fungal growth may not be optimum for
producing high quantities of active 1,3:1,6-β-glucans. However, more research
is needed to clarify this. The conversion of starch to 1,3:1,6-β-glucans is
also dependent on the species of fungus and growing conditions.
* For simplicity, the “D” will henceforth be omitted in the
names of glucose molecules and glucan compounds. The letter indicates an isomer
of glucose (i.e., a glucose molecule with a specific spatial arrangement of its
atoms).
‡ “Mycelium,” in the singular form, refers to masses of mycelium of one species
or strain. The plural form, “mycelia,” refers to batches or masses of mycelium
of more than one species or strain.
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