Issue:
114
Page: 8-16
Nigella Nigella sativa
Family: Ranunculaceae
by Gayle Engels, Josef Brinckmann
HerbalGram.
2017; American Botanical Council
INTRODUCTION
The genus Nigella is
relatively small and contains about 18 species with several sub-species1
and numerous genotypes.2 All Nigella species are therophytes:
annuals that complete their life cycle in a short favorable period and survive
harsh periods as seeds.3 Nigella sativa, perhaps the most
well-known member of the genus, grows 8-35 inches (20-90 cm) in height and has
finely divided, somewhat threadlike leaves. This species has pale-blue to pale-purple
flowers that bloom in the spring and produce seed capsules (fruit) that contain
numerous black seeds.4
The genus likely originated in parts
of the eastern Mediterranean, northeastern Africa, and southwestern Asian
regions.5,6 Nigella sativa is found growing wild in regions
of northern Africa,7 Turkey, Syria, Iraq,8 and Iran.9
The species is also cultivated on a commercial scale in northern Africa (Egypt,10
Tunisia,11 Sudan12), eastern Africa (Ethiopia13,14),
western Asia (Iraq,11 Israel,15 Jordan,16
Lebanon,17 Syria,18 Turkey,10 Yemen19),
and southern Asia (India,20 Iran,21 Pakistan22).
The majority of the global
commercial supply of N. sativa seed is obtained from cultivation in
Egypt, Turkey,18 and India.12 In India, it is mainly
grown in the far northern states of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, and Assam.23
Also cultivated extensively in Iran,24 N. sativa is
traditionally farmed by communities situated in the provinces of Fars,
Khorasan, and Qazvin.21 Most of the certified organic N. sativa
seed in the global market originates from farms in Egypt’s El-Fayoum
agricultural area in the Nile Valley,10 although there is some
organic production in Turkey and India. It should be noted that in Turkey many
farmers plant the seeds of N. damascena in the same fields with N.
sativa (email from K. Hüsnü Can Başer, April 5, 2017).
HISTORY AND
CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE
The common name and genus name Nigella
is derived from the Latin niger, meaning “black.” The term nigellus
is a derivative that means “blackish” or “dark.” The species name sativa,
meaning “cultivated,”25 is not surprising given that N. sativa
had been cultivated for thousands of years before Swedish botanist Carl
Linnaeus named it in 1753.26
In the United States, the preferred
standardized common name for N. sativa is simply “nigella,” according to
the second edition of the American Herbal Products Association’s Herbs of
Commerce.27 Nigella sativa is also known as black cumin,
black caraway,28 and black seed,8 although the common
names “cumin” and “caraway” may be misleading, as these names refer to common
spice plants (Cuminum cyminum and Carum carvi, respectively) in
the carrot, or Apiaceae, family. One of N. sativa’s main trade names, kalonji,
is also the name used in the Arabic Unani-Tibb system of medicine.29
Several archeological sites in Egypt
provide evidence of human use of N. sativa seed from 1324 BCE through
the time of the annexation of Egypt by the Romans in 30 BCE.30 There
is also evidence of cultivation, culinary use, and medicinal use in Mesopotamia
from the late third millennium BCE until the late first millennium BCE.5
Cuneiform tablets of ancient Assyria (comprising parts of present-day Iraq,
Iran, Syria, and Turkey) describe various uses for N. sativa, including
for cases of “a ghost lying on the patient,” which called for fumigation with a
preparation made from 10 shekels (approximately 110 g) of nigella seed.31
Believed at the time to be useful for the afterlife journey, nigella seeds were
placed in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun (ca. 1332-1324 BCE).2
At the ancient Anatolian Boyalı Höyük archeological site, in the present-day Turkish
province of Çorum,
a pilgrim’s flask (ampulla) from ca. 1650 BCE (the Old Hittite Period)
was found to contain a cache of N. sativa seeds mixed with bee propolis
and beeswax. While N. sativa seeds are traditionally taken with bee
products in this region, this may be the first archeological evidence of the
combination.32 There is also evidence of Levantine-Aegean trade in N.
sativa seed during the Late Bronze Age. Excavations of the Uluburun
shipwreck, which occurred sometime between 1350 BCE and 1300 BCE off the
Mediterranean coast of present-day Turkey, uncovered N. sativa seeds
contained in Canaanite amphorae (tall, narrow-necked jars with handles).33
The use of nigella seed was described in the Book of Isaiah 28:25-27 of the
Hebrew Bible as well, which dates back to the eighth century BCE.15
In his De
Materia Medica, Greek pharmaco-botanist Dioscorides (40-90 CE) described
the black seeds of a plant he called melanthion (now believed to have
been N. sativa) for use as food (sprinkled on bread) or as a treatment
for difficult breathing (when drunk with soda), headaches (applied to
forehead), toothaches (boiled with vinegar and pitch pine; used as mouth wash),
imperfections of the skin, leprosy (applied with vinegar), incipient cataracts
(applied in the nostril as an unguent [an ointment or lubricant] made from iris
[Iris spp., Iridaceae]), and catarrh (as nasal inhalant). Dioscorides
also described the use of melanthion to remove corns (applied with old urine to
incised corns), expel roundworms (applied by smearing with water), stimulate
menstruation and urination, and repel snakes (fumigation).34
Fragments of cultivated plant remains of N. sativa (both carbonized and
desiccated seeds) have been identified at archeological sites in the eastern
desert of Egypt, Mons Claudianus,35 a Roman quarry settlement
inhabited during the late first and second centuries, and Mons Porphyrites,
another Roman mining site.36 During the same period, Romans brought
nigella seed with them to western European outposts. Excavation of the second
century Roman settlement of Oedenburg (in the lower plains of the Rhine River
in Germany) turned up mineralized seeds of N. sativa — a rare
archeological finding that indicates N. sativa seed was important enough
to be imported from the Mediterranean.37,38
Nigella seed is
widely used in the traditional Ayurvedic,23 Siddha,39 and
Unani29 systems of medicine, as well as in oral-tradition folk and
tribal medicines of India.40 It is also used in traditional Arabic
and Islamic medicine (TAIM),41 Iranian traditional medicine (ITM),42
and traditional Sudanese medicine,43 among other systems of
medicine. Medicinal uses of nigella seed (Arabic name: hubatul-sudda)
were also described in the hadith literature, attributed to the Islamic
Prophet Muhammad and compiled during the eighth and ninth centuries.44
A claim that nigella seed is a medicine for every disease except death has been
attributed to the Prophet Muhammad.13,45 In TAIM practice, both the
seed (taken with honey) and the fatty oil are used for treating a range of
intestinal disorders and respiratory tract conditions.41 In ITM,
nigella seed (Persian names: shoneez, currently siahdaneh) is
used in some herbal preparations to treat epilepsy.46
Nigella sativa is still
widely used in Asian systems of medicine. As such, quality standards monographs
providing specifications and test methods for N. sativa seed have been
published in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India,23 Siddha
Pharmacopoeia of India,39 and in the Unani Pharmacopoeia of
India.29 The United States Pharmacopeial Convention proposed the
development of a “Nigella Sativa Seed” monograph for its Herbal Medicines
Compendium in May 2013. A draft version of that monograph is posted online
with a call for submission of validated information needed to complete the
monograph.47 India’s Ministry of Agriculture also has established
national grade designations and quality standards for the dried, whole, mature
seeds of N. sativa (Hindi name: kalonji), as well as for the
powdered seed for use as a spice. Among other specification requirements,
“special grade” kalonji seed must contain minimum 1.5% (v/w) essential oil
while “standard grade” kalonji must contain minimum 1.0% (v/w) essential oil.48
In 2014, India, through the Codex Alimentarius Committee on Spices and Herbs,
proposed the development of an international codex standard for cumin,
including both N. sativa and brown cumin (Cuminum cyminum), with
a goal to finalize it by July 2017.49
CURRENT
AUTHORIZED USES IN COSMETICS, FOODS, AND MEDICINES
In countries
where the Ayurvedic system of medicine is recognized and practiced (e.g.,
India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Malaysia, Nepal, and Sri Lanka), the powdered dried
seed of N. sativa, referred to as upakuncika in Sanskrit, is used
as a component of preparations for treating abdominal distention with gas,
gaseous tumor of the abdomen, diarrhea, and worm infestation.23
Where the Unani system of medicine is recognized and practiced (e.g.,
Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka), the dried seed is used
as a component of medicinal formulations to treat asthma, colic, flatulence,
weakness of the stomach, hemicrania continua (persistent unilateral
headache) and migraine, arthralgia (joint pain), lumbago (lower back pain),
hemiplegia (paralysis of one side of the body), Bell’s palsy (paralysis on one
side of the face), jaundice, pityriasis (patches on skin), and
leukoderma/vitiligo (loss of skin pigmentation). Kalonji is often dispensed as
a component of compound Unani medicines known as majoon or halwa.
These soft or semi-solid preparations are made with powdered botanicals and
mixed with honey, resulting in a consistency like that of the popular
confection halva.29 In Siddha medicine — a Dravidian system of
medicine originating in the southeastern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, now also
practiced in the neighboring states of Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh,
as well as in parts of Malaysia, Singapore, and Sri Lanka — the dried seed,
referred to as karuncirakam in Tamil, is used as a component of formulations
indicated for treatment of conditions including painful gastrointestinal
disorders with indigestion, flatulence, jaundice, scalp eczema, scabies, and
skin ulcers.39
In the United
States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies “black cumin (black
caraway), Nigella sativa L.” as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for
use as a spice, natural seasoning, or flavoring.28 Nigella is also
permitted as a component of dietary supplement products, which require FDA
notification within 30 days of marketing if a structure-function claim is made
and product manufacturing that conforms with dietary supplement current Good
Manufacturing Practices (cGMPs).50
In Canada, both
N. sativa seed and seed oil are regulated as medicinal ingredients of
licensed natural health products (NHPs, a category of drugs), which require
pre-marketing authorization from the Natural and Non-prescription Health
Products Directorate. At the time of this writing (April 2017), there were 85
licensed NHPs that list some form of N. sativa as an ingredient, of
which 78 list it as a medicinal ingredient and seven as a non-medicinal
ingredient.51
For use in
cosmetic products, the European Commission Health and Consumers Directorate
lists “Nigella Sativa Seed Extract” for perfuming and skin-conditioning
functions, and “Nigella Sativa Seed Oil” (fixed oil expressed from the seeds of
N. sativa) for emollient, perfuming, and skin-conditioning functions.52
MODERN
RESEARCH
There is
significant genetic variation and quantifiable differences in chemical and
nutrient composition among N. sativa seed chemotypes of Egyptian,
Iranian, Syrian, and Turkish origin.53 Such differences may also
exist in chemotypes found within a single country. In India, for example,
samples of N. sativa seed obtained from 10 different states showed
significant variation in chemical constituents and morphology.54
The primary
constituents in N. sativa seed are fatty oils (30-35%), mainly glycerol
esters of linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids, and aliphatic hydrocarbons,
arachidonic acid (0.01-0.4%), γ-linolenic acid (0.1-1%), and tocopherols (about
170 mg/kg). The seed also contains essential oil (0.4-2.5%), which is composed
mainly of monoterpenes, including p-cymene, thymoquinone, a-pinene, and
carvacrol. The chemical nature of the constituents nigellone and nigellin
remains unclear. Nigellone, described as a component of the essential oil, is
possibly a polymer of thymoquinone, while nigellin has been described as an
alkaloid. There are also traces of isoquinoline alkaloids (nigellicine and
nigellimin-N-oxide), an indazole-type alkaloid (nigellidine-4-O-sulfite),
and dolabellane-type diterpene alkaloids (nigellamines A1 to A5, B1, B2, and
C).55 Analysis of essential oil composition can distinguish N.
sativa and N. damascena. The essential oil of N. damascena,
which is used in perfumery, contains approximately 8-10% of damascenine, a
blue-fluorescing alkaloid. Nigella sativa essential oil does not contain
this compound and therefore shows no fluorescence (email from K. Hüsnü Can
Başer, April 5, 2017).
In vivo and in
vitro studies have shown nigella seed powder and oil to have antibacterial,
antifungal, antihistaminic, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory,
antinociceptive, antioxytocic, antiparasitic, antiviral, diuretic,
hematological, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, immunopotentiating,
wound-healing, and respiratory-stimulant properties.54,56
At least 38
clinical studies have investigated N. sativa seed and seed oil for their
efficacy for various conditions, including respiratory, diabetic, hepatic,
metabolic, mental, and dyspeptic disorders, male infertility, and others.
One 2017
prospective, phase II, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled (RDBPC)
study explored the effects of cold-pressed N. sativa oil (NSO; 0.7%
thymoquinone; Marnys Cuminmar; Cartagena, Spain) on subjects with asthma. For
four weeks, participants (N = 80) took either 500 mg of NSO twice daily or
placebo. Compared to placebo, the NSO group showed a significant improvement in
mean Asthma Control Test scores, as well as a significant reduction in blood
eosinophils, which play a major role in asthma inflammation. There was a trend
toward improved pulmonary function and peak expiratory flow in the NSO group
that did not reach statistical significance, and there was no significant
change in total serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels between groups. The authors
recommend that “future studies should follow patients for a longer period and
use additional outcomes to validate the benefits of NSO in asthma.”57
Another RDBPC
study, published in 2008, evaluated the effects of a boiled aqueous extract of
nigella seed (NS; 50 mg/mL; no additional information provided) on subjects
with respiratory symptoms including chest tightness, breathlessness, cough, and
wheezing as a result of chemical inhalation. The participants (N = 40) were an
average of 48.2 ± 11.91 years old and the exposure had occurred 18-20 years
previously. Each participant drank either the NS extract (0.375 mL/kg of body
weight) or a placebo solution daily for two months. Participants received
medical exams wherein respiratory symptoms were measured at baseline, 30 days,
and the end of the intervention. There were no significant differences between
groups at baseline. Significant improvements in all symptoms were seen in the
NS group at visits two (day 30) and three (day 60) compared to baseline, except
for morning wheeze and cough at day 30. All symptoms were significantly
improved by the end of the study compared to day 30 in the NS group.
Additionally, all symptoms were significantly reduced in the NS group at day 30
and the end of the study compared to placebo.58
Six additional
studies have investigated the effects of nigella on respiratory issues. Three
of these studies addressed allergic rhinitis: One study found no significant
improvement with 0.6-0.8 mg/kg NSO three times daily over six weeks59;
one found significant improvement in symptoms over one month with 2 g NS once
daily60; and one claimed improvement in symptoms with NSO but did
not specify the dosage.61 Another study on asthma, which tested 1
and 2 g/day of NS, found that both doses resulted in significant improvements
in markers at six and 12 weeks compared to baseline.62 One study on
lower respiratory tract illness in children reported significant improvement
compared to baseline in pulmonary index scores and some improvement in peak
expiratory flow rate with daily administration of NSO (0.1 mL/kg of body
weight) over 14 days.63 Finally, one study that investigated the
effect of a NSO nasal spray (22 mg cold-pressed NSO/25 mL spray) on nasal
symptoms in elderly patients for two weeks found that nasal dryness, obstruction,
and crusting improved significantly with NSO treatment compared to a saline
solution.64
At least two
studies have assessed the effects of nigella on patients with rheumatoid
arthritis (RA). In one RDBPC study from 2014, patients with RA (N = 42) were
randomly assigned to receive either 500 mg NSO (produced by Barij Essence
Pharmaceutical Co.; Kashan, Iran; soft gel capsules containing 500 mg of
cold-pressed NSO) or placebo (paraffin) twice daily for eight weeks. Blood
samples were taken at baseline and the end of the study to measure markers of
inflammation (serum tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α] and interleukin 10
[IL-10]) and oxidative stress (serum malondialdehyde [MDA] and nitric oxide
[NO]). The NSO group experienced a significant increase in serum IL-10, and a
significant decrease in serum MDA and NO, compared to placebo. No significant
changes in other biomarkers were observed between or within groups.
Nevertheless, these results suggest that NSO could be a valuable adjunct
therapy in RA, as it improves certain markers of inflammation and oxidative
stress in patients.65
Another
placebo-controlled study, published in 2012, investigated the effects of
nigella in female patients with RA. After taking starch-filled placebo capsules
twice daily for one month, subjects (N = 40) took 500 mg of cold-pressed NSO
twice daily for an additional month. Investigators reported significant
improvements in the patients’ Disease Activity Scores (a clinician-rated
measure of joint swelling and tenderness) compared to ratings taken both before
and after the one-month placebo period.66
At least two
studies have investigated the impact of nigella on mental and cognitive health.
In one 2013 RDBPC clinical trial, 40 healthy elderly volunteers were randomly
assigned to take 500 mg crushed and encapsulated NS (no additional information
provided) or placebo twice daily for nine weeks. Compared to baseline, the test
group experienced significant differences in scores on various measures of
memory, attention, and cognition, including logical memory tests I and II, a
digit span memory assessment (total score), and the Rey-Osterrieth complex
figure test (30-minute delayed recall and percent score). There were also
significant differences compared to baseline in the time taken to complete a
letter cancellation test and trail-making tests A and B. The authors suggested
that additional studies should be undertaken with large populations of patients
with Alzheimer’s disease over a longer period of time to determine if NS can enhance
memory, attention, and cognition in that population.67
Another RDBPC
study explored the effectiveness of nigella in treating mood, anxiety, and
cognition. Young men (N = 48; 14-17 years old) were randomly assigned to take
500 mg crushed and encapsulated NS (no additional information provided) or
placebo daily for four weeks. Compared to baseline, there was a statistically
significant improvement in scores on the Bond-Lader visual analog scale (a
measure of mood) for the NS group, but no statistically significant difference
between the NS group and placebo group. There was also a statistically
significant decrease in State-Trait Anxiety Inventory scores in the treatment
group over four weeks compared to placebo. Both immediate free recall and
delayed recall improved significantly over four weeks in the treatment group
only. The authors postulated that cognition may have improved due to the
improvements in anxiety and mood, and suggested that further long-term studies
are warranted.68
A 2016 RDBPC
study examined the effect of nigella on Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, an
immunological condition that impacts the thyroid gland. Patients with
Hashimoto’s (N = 40) were randomly assigned to take 2 g of ground NS (prepared by
Goldaru Pharmaceutical Co.; Isfahan, Iran; no additional information provided)
daily or placebo. The NS group experienced significantly reduced body weight,
body mass index (BMI), and hip and waist circumference over eight weeks
compared to the placebo group. Additionally, serum concentrations of thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH) and anti-thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) antibodies
decreased in the NS group over eight weeks, while serum triiodothyronine (T3)
increased. While there was no change in the concentration of nesfatin-1 (a
neuropeptide involved in the regulation of hunger and fat storage) during the
study, the authors noted that changes in anthropometric variables (weight, BMI,
and hip and waist circumference) and thyroid hormones (TSH, anti-TPO, and T3)
are often significant predictors of changes in nesfatin-1 concentrations.69
In a 2014
randomized, double-blind, controlled trial, NSO (verified seeds, dried, ground,
and extracted with 96% ethanol, which was later evaporated) was compared to
fish oil for the treatment of vitiligo, a condition characterized by a loss of
skin pigmentation. Patients with vitiligo (N = 52) were randomly
assigned to apply NSO or fish oil on lesions twice daily for six months. By the
end of the study, Vitiligo Area Scoring Index (VASI) scores had improved
significantly in the NSO group compared to the fish oil group. There were no
significant changes in VASI scores between groups in the first three months;
not until the fourth month of the study did significant improvement appear in
the NSO group.70
A 2016
randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled trial investigated the
effectiveness of NSO in treating cyclic mastalgia. Female patients diagnosed
with cyclic mastalgia (N = 156; 25-45 years old) were randomly assigned to
apply twice daily 2 g of NSO gel (a gel base combined with cold-pressed NSO;
Barij Essence Pharmaceutical Co.; Kashan, Iran), 20 mg of topical diclofenac,
or a placebo gel for two menstrual cycles. There were no significant
differences in patient characteristics or baseline pain scores between groups.
Pain scores in active treatment groups also did not differ significantly at
cycles one and two. However, both active treatment groups experienced a
significant decrease in pain scores by the end of the study compared to
baseline and placebo. The authors posited that thymoquinone, unsaturated fatty
acids, and carvacrol may play a part in NSO’s effectiveness for treating cyclic
mastalgia. They also stated that the main shortcoming of the study was the lack
of follow-up, which might have been helpful since recurrence of cyclic
mastalgia is common.71
Two outcomes
from a single RDBPC study were published in 2015 and 2016 on NSO and
cardiovascular risk, and NSO and inflammation, respectively. Obese women (N =
84; 25-50 years old) took 3 g per day of cold-pressed NSO (Dana Co.; Tabriz,
Iran) or placebo and followed a low-calorie diet for eight weeks. In the
cardiovascular-risk arm of the study, the women in the NSO group experienced
significant decreases compared to baseline in weight, waist circumference, and
levels of triglycerides and very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). The authors
suggested that NSO supplementation combined with a low-calorie diet may reduce
cardiometabolic risk factors in obese women, but they noted that more studies
are needed to assess the efficacy of NSO as a complementary therapy.72
In the second arm of the study, NSO significantly decreased serum levels of
TNF-α and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein compared to placebo. No
significant changes were seen in IL-6 levels. Based on these findings, the
authors concluded that NSO supplementation and calorie-restriction may modulate
systemic inflammatory biomarkers in obese women but that more studies are
needed to clarify the findings.73
A 2015 study
assessed the effects of the previously mentioned NSO preparation on oxidative
stress in obese women (N = 50; 25-50 years old). Investigators reported
significant weight loss in the NSO group compared to the placebo group after
eight weeks. Additionally, significant changes in superoxide dismutase (SOD, a
natural antioxidant enzyme) occurred in the NSO group compared to the placebo
group.74
Three studies
of varying quality have been conducted on nigella for functional dyspepsia. In
one RDBPC study, 70 patients diagnosed with functional dyspepsia took either a
traditional formula consisting of 5 mL cold-pressed NSO, mineral oil, and honey
(Barij Essence Pharmaceutical Co.; Kashan, Iran) or placebo daily for eight
weeks. In both groups, significant decreases in dyspepsia severity scores as
measured by the Hong Kong index of dyspepsia severity were seen in the second,
fourth, and eighth weeks, but mean scores and the rate of Helicobacter
pylori infection for the NSO group were significantly lower than in the
placebo group at the end of the study. Additionally, there was a significant
difference in quality of life between the NSO and placebo groups at eight
weeks.75
A 2015
meta-analysis and systematic review assessed 17 randomized, controlled trials
that examined the effects of N. sativa on plasma lipid concentrations.
The authors suggested that there was a significant association between NS
supplementation and reduction in total cholesterol and triglyceride levels. No
significant effects were seen on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol
levels. NSO performed better than NS powder in lowering total serum cholesterol
and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, but only NS powder was found to
increase HDL cholesterol. The authors recommended that further randomized,
controlled trials are needed to explore nigella’s benefits for cardiovascular
health.76
FUTURE
OUTLOOK
There are no
known comprehensive reports available on the conservation status of wild N.
sativa in its native habitat. However, it has been cultivated for thousands
of years, and the commercial supply is not known to originate from wild
populations. Historically, the main producers and exporters of cultivated N.
sativa seed have been Egypt, Turkey, Syria,18 and India.12
Because N. sativa seed is widely used in the Indian systems of medicine,
the plant is cultivated on a large scale and estimated to be traded in annual
quantities in excess of 100 metric tons (MT).20 Certified organic N.
sativa seed comes predominantly from farms in Egypt and, to a lesser
extent, Turkey.10
Market prices
for cultivated N. sativa seed from the two main countries of origin,
Egypt and India, have generally been stable. In late 2016, prices for full
container load (FCL) quantities of conventional N. sativa seed from
India ranged from $2,258 to $2,750 per MT (Free on Board [FOB]* Mumbai Port).
Conventional Egyptian material sold for $2,900 per MT (FOB Alexandria Port).
Some Egyptian exporters were also offering FCL quantities of fair trade and
certified organic N. sativa seed for $3,000 per MT (FOB Alexandria
Port).77
The quantities
of seed needed for use in the various traditional African and Asian systems of
medicine, as well as for culinary use, are already considerable, and due to the
significant levels of promising new clinical research, it seems likely that
production and demand will increase, especially for value-added forms, such as
oils and extracts.
—Gayle Engels and Josef Brinckmann
* Free On Board means that the price
only includes the cost of the item. Seller arranges for transport of the goods,
preparing goods for shipment, and loading the goods onto the vessel.
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