Issue: 58 Page: 34-44
A Sample Chapter From The ABC Clinical Guide to Herbs: Chamomile
by Mark Blumenthal
HerbalGram. 2003; 58:34-44 American Botanical Council
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A Sample Chapter FromThe ABC Clinical Guide to Herbs
HerbalGram is proud
to present a sample chapter from the American Botanical Council’s latest book, The
ABC Clinical Guide to Herbs. Each of the 29
in-depth monographs includes an overview, description, clinical uses, dosage,
duration of administration, actions, contraindications, side effects, herb-drug
interactions, safety ratings, regulatory status, and a detailed chart that
reviews the clinical studies conducted to date and brand names of products used
in the clinical studies. A separate chapter covers proprietary herbal products
that have undergone clinical studies.
The sample here is identical to what is published in The
Guide, except that HerbalGram took the liberty of restoring the color to the photographs.
The book itself is printed in black and white.
CE Credit for Healthcare Professionals
The ABC Clinical Guide to Herbs is accredited for Continuing Education credit in the
United States for physicians, naturopathic physicians, physician assistants,
pharmacists, nurses, and dietitians. This activity has been planned and
implemented in accordance with the Essential Areas and Policies of the
Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME) through the
joint sponsorship of the Texas Medical Association and ABC. The other accredited providers are the Oregon Board of Naturopathic Examiners, Commission
on Dietetic Registration (CDR) of the American Dietetic Association through Southwest Texas University, the American Council on Pharmaceutical Education through the Texas Pharmacy Association, and the American Nurses Credentialing Center’s Commission on Accreditation through the Texas Nurses Association. Upon
completion of this module, participants should be able to meet the following
learning objectives:
1. Identify the 29 most popular medicinal herbs available to consumers in the
U.S. market.
2. Explain the common therapeutic indications of the leading herbs.
3. Provide an overview of the clinical study research of the leading herbs.
4. Identify potential drug interactions and side effects.
5. Evaluate the safety issues and contraindications.
6. Interpret product labels for indications of clinical efficacy.
7. Distinguish different types of brands on the
marketplace which are backed by clinical research.
8. Understand the implications of government regulations on the clinical use
of herbs.
Citation:
Blumenthal M, Hall T, Goldberg A, Kunz T, Dinda K,
Brinckmann J, et al., eds. The ABC Clinical Guide to Herbs. Austin (TX): American Botanical Council;
2003:51-60.
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project.
Clinical Overview
Chamomile, German
Matricaria recutita L. (syn. Chamomilla recutita [L.] Rauschert;
M. chamomilla L.; M. suaveolens L.)
[Fam. Asteraceae]
Overview
Chamomile is one of the most widely used ingredients in
herbal teas worldwide. The amount of chamomile imported into the U.S. each year
is between 750,000 and one million pounds, with an estimated 90% used in teas.
In the U.S. and Europe, chamomile is also a popular ingredient for external use
in health and beauty aids. In commerce, chamomile is often called German
chamomile or Hungarian chamomile, which should not be confused with the rarer,
and more costly, Roman or English chamomile (Anthemis nobilis syn. Chamaemelum nobile).
Primary Uses
Internal
•Gastrointestinal spasms
•Inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract
•Indigestion, flatulence, and/or excess gas production, bloating
External
• Inflammatory dermatosis
• Neurodermatitis
• Wound treatment after dermabrasion for tattoo removal
• Ano-genital inflammation (baths and irrigation)
Other Potential Uses
• Diarrhea in children
• Common cold symptoms
• Alleviation of mucositis induced by radiation and chemotherapy
Pharmacological Actions
Anti-inflammatory; muscle relaxant; antispasmodic; promotes wound-healing;
deodorant; antibacterial and bacteriostatic; stimulates skin metabolism; mild
sedative; carminative.
Dosage and Administration
Internal and External
Caution patients to report any acute complaints that last more than one week,
or recur periodically.
Internal
Dried flower heads: 2–4 g, 3 times daily; 5 g single dose.
Infusion: The German Commission E dosage: 150 ml boiling water poured over approximately 3 g dried flower and steeped, covered, for 5–10 minutes, 3–4 times daily between meals for gastrointestinal complaints. The official Swiss tea infusion dosage for the same indication is 900 mg, 3–5 times daily.
Fluid extract: 1:1 (g/ml), 38–53% ethanol (v/v), containing minimum
0.3% (m/m) blue volatile oil, 1–4 ml, 3 times daily.
Tincture: 1:5 (g/ml), 45% ethanol, 3–10 ml, 3 times daily. The Kamillosan® Konzentrat product has an approximately 1:4.0–4.5 (w/v) ratio in 42.8%
ethanol; each 100 ml contains 150–300 mg essential oil, 150–300 mg apigenin-7-glucoside, and 50 mg (-)-a-bisabolol. Adults: 5 ml in 100 ml warm water, 4 times daily. Children:
2.5 ml, 4 times daily.
External
Bath additive: 50 g dried flower added to 10 liters (about 2.5 gallons) water, as a bath for ano-genital inflammation.
Gargle: 100 ml boiling water poured over 3–10 g dried flower and steeped, covered,
for 5–10 minutes. The tea infusion used as a wash or gargle for inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat. Or, 5 ml tincture poured into 100
ml warm water and gargled 3 or more times daily.
Inhalation: 100 ml boiling water poured over 3–10 g dried flower and steeped,
covered, for 5–10 minutes. Or, 15 ml tincture poured into 0.5 liter boiled water,
1–3 times daily. Steam vapor inhaled for inflammation of the upper respiratory
tract.
Poultice: Semisolid paste or plaster containing 3–10% (m/m) of flower
heads.
Rinse: Hot aqueous rinse containing 3–10% infusion.
Note: Do not apply the infusion near the eyes.
Contraindications
Known hypersensitivity to plants of the Asteraceae
(Compositae) family such as arnica flower (Arnica spp.), chamomile flower (Matricaria spp.), marigold flower (Calendula
officinalis), and yarrow flower (Achillea spp.); ragweed (Ambrosia spp.); asters (Aster tataricus); and chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum spp.).
Pregnancy and Lactation: No known restrictions.
Adverse Effects
Minor side effects have been recorded. In rare cases, a
contact allergy may occur. Washing the eyes with chamomile tea may cause
allergic conjunctivitis in rare cases. The highly concentrated hot tea has been
reported to act as an emetic. The unprocessed, crude flower is free from any
toxic effects. Rarely, anaphylactic reactions can occur. Case reports have
documented contact dermatitis and urticaria as well as one fatal anaphylaxis
after a chamomile-containing enema was given during labor.
Drug Interactions
No known interactions. Fluid extract may prevent ethyl alcohol-induced ulcer
formation. Potential interactions with warfarin have been cautioned.
Clinical Review
Of 10 clinical studies on German chamomile extract (8,668 total participants),
all but 1 demonstrated positive effects for indications including dermatological, neurological, and respiratory conditions. Three studies focused on the use of
chamomile as a mouthwash for stomatitis and for its astringent and cooling effects.
One stomatitis study did not notice significant improvement. Dermatological studies
included a controlled, bilateral, comparative study investigating a chamomile cream against inflammatory dermatoses, and a double-blind (DB) study on use of
a chamomile extract to promote wound-healing after dermabrasion. Other studies demonstrating positive results included inhalation of the steam vapor of chamomile
extract to treat respiratory tract conditions related to the common cold, inhalation
of the volatile oil to determine the effect of olfactory stimulation on mood, and oral ingestion of the aqueous infusion to investigate cardiac effects after
ventricular catheterization. In a study of 8,058 mothers in childbirth conducted
over a period of eight years, two essential oils, clary sage (Salvia sclarea)
and chamomile, were shown to be effective in alleviating pain during labor. A recent DB, placebo-controlled study investigated the use of a chamomile fluid
extract and apple pectin combination product for treating young children with acute, non-complicated diarrhea.
Patient Information Sheet
Chamomile, German
Matricaria recutita L. (syn. Chamomilla recutita [L.] Rauschert; M. chamomilla L.; M. suaveolens L.)
[Fam. Asteraceae]
Overview
In the U.S., chamomile is one of the most widely used herbal ingredients
in teas as well as in cosmetic, health, and beauty aid products. The amount of
chamomile imported into the U.S. each year is between 750,000 and one million
pounds, with an estimated 90% used in teas. In commerce, chamomile is often called
German chamomile or Hungarian chamomile, which should not be confused with the
rare, and more costly, Roman or English chamomile (Anthemis nobilis syn. Chamaemelum nobile ).
Uses
Internal
Indigestion; flatulence (gas); bloating; gastrointestinal spasms; inflammatory
diseases of the gastrointestinal tract.
External
Inflammatory skin conditions; scaly patches of skin resulting from an itch
that is irritated when scratched; wound treatment after dermabrasion for tattoo
removal; inflamed anal and genital areas (baths and irrigation).
Dosage
For acute complaints that
last more than one week, or recur periodically, consult your healthcare
provider.
Internal
Fluid extract: 1–4 ml, 3 times daily.
Tincture: Adults: 5 ml in 100 ml warm water, 4 times daily. Children: 2.5 ml,
4 times daily.
External
Bath additive: Add 50 g dried flower per 10 liters (approximately 2.5 gallons)
water. Bathe in the infusion for ano-genital inflammation.
Gargle: Pour 100 ml boiling water over 3–10 g dried flower and steep, covered,
for 5–10 minutes. Use the tea infusion as a wash or gargle for inflammation of
the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat, or pour 5 ml tincture into 100 ml
warm water, and gargle 3 or more times daily.
Inhalation: Pour 100 ml boiling water over 3–10 g dried flower and steep, covered,
for 5–10 minutes, or pour 15 ml tincture into approximately 2 cups boiled water,
1–3 times daily. Inhale steam vapor for inflammation of the upper respiratory
tract.
Contraindications
Individuals allergic to
plants in the same family (including arnica, marigold, yarrow, chrysanthemum,
and ragweed, for example) may experience a similar reaction to chamomile.
Pregnancy and Lactation: There are no known restrictions for usage
during pregnancy or while breast-feeding.
Adverse Effects
Rare cases of allergic
reactions to chamomile used as an eyewash have been reported. A fatal, possibly
allergic, reaction occurred during labor after a chamomile enema was used.
Highly concentrated hot tea may cause vomiting. Other adverse effects include
dermatitis and urticaria.
Drug Interactions
The fluid extract may prevent
ulcers caused by alcohol consumption. Potential interactions with the
anticoagulating drug warfarin have been speculated.
Comments
When using a dietary supplement, purchase it from a reliable source. For best
results, use the same brand of product throughout the period of use. As with all
medications and dietary supplements, please inform your healthcare provider of
all herbs and medications you are taking. Interactions may occur between medications
and herbs or even among different herbs when taken at the same time. Treat your
herbal supplement with care by taking it as directed, storing it as advised on
the label, and keeping it out of the reach of children and pets. Consult your
healthcare provider with any questions.
Monograph
Chamomile, German
Matricaria recutita L. (syn. Chamomilla recutita [L.] Rauschert;
M. chamomilla L.; M. suaveolens L.)
[Fam. Asteraceae]
Overview
Chamomile is one of the most widely used ingredients in
herbal teas worldwide. The amount of chamomile imported into the U.S. each year
is between 750,000 and one million pounds, with an estimated 90% used in teas
(Keating, 2001). In the U.S. and Europe, chamomile is also a popular ingredient
for external use in health and beauty aids. In commerce, chamomile is often
called German chamomile or Hungarian chamomile, which should not be confused
with the rarer, and more costly, Roman or English chamomile (Anthemis
nobilis syn. Chamaemelum nobile).
Description
Chamomile preparations consist of the fresh or dried flower
heads of Matricaria recutita L. (syn. Chamomilla
recutita [L.] Rauschert; M.
Chamomilla L.; M. suaveolens L.) [Fam. Asteraceae]. Pharmacopeial grade chamomile must contain no less
than 0.4% of blue volatile oil, and no less than 0.3% of apigenin-7-glucoside (USP, 2002). Pharmacopeial grade chamomile fluid extract contains not less than
0.3% of blue residual oil with an ethanol content of 38%–53% (v/v) (Ph.Eur., 2001).
Primary Uses
Internal
• Gastrointestinal spasms, inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (Morant and Ruppanner, 2001; Blumenthal et al., 1998; Bradley, 1992; Braun et al., 1996)
• Indigestion, flatulence and/or excess gas production, bloating (Health Canada, 1996)
External
Dermatology
• Inflammatory dermatosis and neurodermatitis (Aertgeerts et al., 1985)
• Wound treatment after dermabrasion for tattoo removal (Glowania et al., 1987)
• Ano-genital inflammation (baths and irrigation) (Blumenthal et al., 1998; Braun et al., 1996)
Other Potential Uses
• Diarrhea in children (de la Motte et al., 1997)
• Common cold symptoms (Saller et al., 1990)
Oncology
• Alleviation of radiation and chemotherapy induced mucositis (Carl and Emrich,
1991)
Dosage
Internal
Crude Preparations
Dried flower heads: 2–4 g, 3 times daily (Bradley, 1992), 5 g single dose (CCRUM,
1992).
Infusion: The German Commission E dosage is 150 ml boiling water poured over
approximately 3 g dried flower and steeped, covered, for 5–10 minutes, 3–4 times
daily between meals for gastrointestinal complaints (Blumenthal et al., 1998; Braun et al., 1996). The official Swiss tea infusion dosage for the
same indication is 900 mg, 3–5 times daily (Morant and Ruppanner, 2001).
Fluid extract: 1:1 (g/ml), 38–53% ethanol (v/v), containing minimum
0.3% (w/w) blue volatile oil, 1–4 ml, 3 times daily (Bradley, 1992).
Tincture: 1:5 (g/ml), 45% ethanol, 3–10 ml, 3 times daily (Bradley,
1992).
Tincture: 1:4.0–4.5 (w/v) ratio in 42.8% ethanol. Adults: 5 ml in 100
ml warm water, 4 times daily. Children: 2.5 ml, 4 times daily (Asta Medica, 1998;
Gelbe Liste Pharmindex, 2000).
External
Crude Preparations
Bath additive: 50g dried flower added per 10 liters (ca. 2.5 gallons) water
as a bath for ano-genital inflammation (Blumenthal et al., 1998; Braun et al., 1996).
Gargle: 100 ml boiling water poured over 3–10 g dried flower and steeped, covered,
for 5–10 minutes (Braun et al., 1996). The tea infusion is used as a wash
or gargle for inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat (Blumenthal et al., 1998; Braun et al., 1996). Or 5 ml tincture poured into
100 ml warm water and gargled 3 or more times daily (Asta Medica, 1998).
Inhalation: 100 ml boiling water poured over 3–10 g dried flower and steeped,
covered, for 5–10 min. (Braun et al., 1996). Or 15 ml tincture poured into
0.5 liter boiled water, 1–3 times daily (Asta Medica, 1998). Steam vapor inhaled
for inflammation of the upper respiratory tract.
Poultice: Semisolid paste or plaster containing 3–10% (m/m) of flower
heads (Blumenthal et al., 1998).
Rinse: Hot aqueous rinse containing 3–10% infusion (Blumenthal et al., 1998).
Note: Do not apply infusion near eyes (Braun et al., 1996).
Duration of Administration
Internal and external
For acute complaints that last more than one week, or recur periodically, consult
a healthcare provider (Braun et al., 1996).
Chemistry
Chamomile contains from 6–8% flavonoids (Hänsel et al., 1999; Bruneton, 1999; Dölle et al., 1985), composed of flavone glycosides including
apigenin 7-glucoside and its 6’-acetylated derivative and flavonols including
luteolin glucosides, quercetin glycosides, and isorhamnetin (Bruneton, 1999);
up to 10% mucilage polysaccharides (Carle and Isaac, 1985; Meyer-Buchtela,
1999); 0.4–2.0% volatile oil, composed of bisabolane sesquiterpenes (up to 50%)
and chamazulene (1–15%); sesquiterpene lactones (matricin and matricarin)
(Bruneton, 1999; Carle and Isaac, 1985); and up to 0.3% choline (Schilcher,
1987).
Pharmacological Actions
According to the German Commission E, chamomile is anti-inflammatory; muscle
relaxant; antispasmodic; promotes wound-healing; deodorant; antibacterial; bacteriostatic;
stimulates skin metabolism (Blumenthal et al., 1998).
Internal
Human
Sedative (Bradley, 1992; Gould et al., 1973; Mann and Staba, 1986);
carminative (CCRUM, 1992).
Animal
Inhibits ulceration (Szelenyi et al., 1979); relaxes smooth muscle (Carle
and Gomaa, 1991,92); depresses central nervous system (CNS) (Della Loggia et
al., 1982). Apigenin binds to central benzodiazepine receptors, producing
anxiolytic effects in mice but without any sedative or myorelaxant effects (Viola et al., 1995). A subsequent study reports, in contrast, that apigenin has
sedative action without anxiolytic and/or myorelaxant effect. The study links
the sedative action of chamomile extracts not to an activation of GABAA receptors
by apigenin, but to other compounds with benzodiazepine-like activity (Avallone et al., 2000).
In vitro
Antipeptic (reduces proteolytic activity of pepsin by 50%) (Thiemer et al., 1972; Isaac and Thiemer, 1975); prevents and relieves inflammation (Ammon and
Sabieraj, 1996).
External
Human
Anti-inflammatory (Aertgeerts et al., 1985); astringent; cooling (Nasemann,
1975); promotes wound-healing (Glowania et al., 1987).
Animal
Anti-inflammatory (Carle and Gomaa, 1991,92; Tubaro et al., 1984; WHO,
1999).
Mechanism of Action
• Whole plant extracts of chamomile have demonstrated antispasmodic action, though the mechanism of action was unclear (Forster et al., 1980). Antispasmodic
effects are due mainly to chamomile’s water-soluble constituents (Carle and Gomaa, 1991,92) such as the flavonoids apigenin and apigenin-7-O-glucoside and the volatile
oil (–)-a-bisabolol, which act similarly to papaverine (Bruneton, 1999; WHO, 1999).
• Sedative effects are attributed to the flavonoids, including apigenin, which acts as a ligand for the central benzodiazepine receptors. Apigenin competitively
inhibits the binding of flunitrazepam, thus providing a molecular basis for possible weak CNS-depressing activity of water-based preparations (e.g., teas) (Viola et
al., 1995).
• Apigenin may be an anti-inflammatory constituent (Hadley and Petry, 1999),
due to the water-soluble and lipophilic components. The flavones block the arachidonic
acid pathway by inhibiting phospholipase A, cyclo-oxygenase, and lipoxygenase pathways. The volatile oil components, chamazulene and a-bisabolol, have also
demonstrated anti-inflammatory action by interfering with 5-lipoxygenase and cyclo-oxygenase
production (Carle and Gomaa, 1991,92).
• The azulene components of the volatile oil have anti-allergenic and anti-inflammatory
actions, though the mechanism of action was unclear (Farnsworth and Morgan, 1972).
• Azulene may prevent histamine discharge from tissue by activating the pituitary-adrenal
system, causing the release of cortisone (Stern and Milin, 1956); or azulene may
prevent allergic seizures caused by histamine release, activating cellular resistance
and speeding the process of healing (Meer and Meer, 1960).
• Chamomile extract accelerates wound-healing, reportedly by reducing inflammation
and promoting tissue granulation and regeneration on topical application (Carle
and Isaac, 1987).
Contraindications
Known hypersensitivity to plants of the Asteraceae
(Compositae) family such as arnica flower (Arnica spp.), chamomile flower (Matricaria spp.), marigold flower (Calendula officinalis L.), and yarrow flower (Achillea spp.) (Braun et al., 1996); ragweed (Ambrosia spp.); asters (Aster tataricus L. f.); and chrysanthemums (Chrysanthemum spp.) (WHO, 1999).
Pregnancy and Lactation: No known restrictions in pregnancy or lactation (De
Smet et al., 1992; McGuffin et al., 1997). No adverse teratogenic
effects have been reported in vivo (WHO, 1999).
Adverse Effects
Minor side effects are recorded by several references
(McGuffin et al., 1997). There is
empirical evidence of extremely rare contact allergy (Bradley, 1992; Brinker,
2001). Eye washing with chamomile tea may induce allergic conjunctivitis in
rare cases (Subiza et al., 1990).
Highly concentrated hot tea has been reported to act as an emetic (Chadha,
1952–1988). The unprocessed crude flower is free from any toxic effects (CCRUM,
1992). Case reports describing contact dermatitis and urticaria have been
documented (Foti et al., 2000; Giordano-Labadie, 2000; Rodriguez-Serna et al., 1998; Pereira, 1997; McGeorge and Steele, 1991; van
Ketel, 1982). A case report regarding a fatal outcome of anaphylaxis when a
chamomile-containing enema was given during labor has been documented ( Jensen-Jarolim et al., 1998). Rarely, anaphylactic reactions can occur
(Casterline, 1980; Subiza et al.,
1989).
There have been several reports in the literature of suspected anaphylaxis
associated with the use of chamomile. One authoritative source, reviewing the
available literature from over almost 100 years, concluded, “This rather remote
possibility may have been greatly overemphasized in the nonmedical literature.
Only five cases of allergy specifically attributed to German chamomile were identified
worldwide between 1887 and 1982; however, a recent report indicates that a German
chamomile ether extract used in allergic patch testing from 1985 to 1990 in 3,851
tested individuals produced an allergic reaction in sixty-six patients or 1.7%.”
(Robbers and Tyler, 1999). One of the reports receiving widespread attention in
the medical press was based on a misinterpretation of the taxonomic identity of
the so-called “chamomile” (Anon., 1979). This article warned readers to avoid
teas made from the Composite family, including chamomile, goldenrod (Solidago
virgaurea), marigold, and yarrow. The article cited a paper titled “Anaphylactic
reaction to chamomile tea” (Benner and Lee, 1973), which does not specify the
genus or species of the purported chamomile material implicated in the single
case described, a 35-year old woman who suffered from ragweed hay fever and who
developed anaphylaxis following ingestion of one cup of the purported “chamomile
tea” (Awang, 1990). The incident was incorrectly inferred to be the popular German
or Hungarian chamomile (M. recutita). The actual case was based on ingestion
of dog fennel (Anthemis cotula), a plant not widely used in commercial
products, and generally unavailable in the U.S. Dog fennel is a member of the
genus Anthemis, the same as Roman or English chamomile (A. nobilis,
syn. Chamaemelum nobile) — hence the erroneous appellation “chamomile”
by the authors of the case reports (Lewis, 1992). Dog fennel contains a higher
level of anthecotulid, a sesquiterpene lactone that has demonstrated activity
in primary irritant contact dermatitis (Hausen et al., 1984).
However, there have been some recent reports of anaphylaxis
to German chamomile (M. recutita). In
one study, 10 out of 14 patients with a history of allergy to chamomile,
spices, or “weeds” tested positive to chamomile in a skin prick/RAST test
(Reider et al., 2000). Curiously,
chamazulene in German chamomile has anti-allergenic and anti-inflammatory
activity, and another constituent, an EN-IN-dicycloether, has demonstrated
anti-inflammatory, anti-anaphylactic, spasmolytic, and bacteriostatic activity
(Farnsworth and Morgan, 1972).
Drug Interactions
According to the German Commission E, no interactions are
known (Blumenthal et al., 1998). The
fluid extract may prevent ethyl alcohol-induced ulcer formation (Brinker,
2001). In vitro studies of the
inhibitory effect of ethanolic herbal extracts and tinctures on the cytochrome
P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) system revealed a median inhibitory concentration (IC50) of a
chamomile extract ranging from 1–2%. This might have implications for predicting the likelihood of potential
herb-drug interactions (Budzinski et al., 2000), although such reactions have not been reported. Potential
interactions with warfarin have been reported, and caution regarding their
concomitant use has been suggested (Heck et al., 2000), although this remains speculative.
American Herbal Products Association (AHPA) Safety Rating
Class 1: Herbs that can be safely consumed when used appropriately (McGuffin et al., 1997).
Regulatory Status
Austria: Official in the Austrian Pharmacopoeia (ÖAB) (Wichtl, 1997).
Belgium: Herbal medicine for oral or external use for specific indication
(Bradley, 1992; Van Hellemont, 1986; WHO, 1998).
Canada: Permitted as a Traditional Herbal Medicine (THM) or homeopathic drug
for oral use. Requires premarket authorization and assignment of a Drug Identification
Number (DIN) if labeled as a THM or homeopathic drug (Health Canada, 1996). Food,
if no claim statement is made.
Council of Europe: Dried flower, essential oil and fluid extract official
in European Pharmacopoeia, 3rd edition (Ph.Eur., 2001).
France: Traditional Herbal Medicine (THM) for oral and external use for specific
indications (Bradley, 1992; Bruneton, 1999). Official in the French Pharmacopoeia,
10th edition (Ph.Fr.X) (WHO, 1999).
Germany: Approved nonprescription drug of the German Commission E for oral
and external use (Blumenthal et al., 1998). Tea infusion form is an approved
nonprescription drug in the German Standard License monographs (Braun et
al., 1996). The alcoholic fluid extract and the volatile oil forms are official
in the German Pharmacopoeia (DAB, 1999).
India: Licensed single drug in Unani system of medicine (CCRUM, 1992). Also
listed in compound formulations official in the National Formulary of Unani
Medicine (NFUM I) with standards approved by the Unani Pharmacopoeia Committee
(UPC) (NFUM, 1983).
Italy: Listed in the Italian Pharmacopoeia (Newall et al., 1996).
Russian Federation: Official in the USSR X (Bradley, 1992; Newall et al.,
1996).
Sweden: Natural remedy for self-medication. Requires marketing authorization
by the Medical Products Agency (WHO, 1998).
Switzerland: Official in the Swiss Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Helv.) (Wichtl,
1997). Creams, fluid extracts, powders, sprays, and tea infusions are Category
D non-prescription drugs with sale limited to pharmacies and drugstores (Morant
and Ruppanner, 2001; Asta Medica, 2000; WHO, 1998).
U.K.: Herbal medicine specified in the General Sale List, Schedule 1 (medicinal products requiring a full product license), Table A (internal or
external use) (GSL, 1990).
U.S.: Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) (US FDA, 1998). Food or dietary supplement, depending on the claim statement (USC, 1994). Listed in the Official
Monographs of the U.S. National Formulary, 19th edition (USP, 2002). Tincture
of the whole flower plant, 1:10 (w/v) in 45% alcohol (v/v), is a
Class C over-the-counter (OTC) drug of the Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the
United States (HPUS, 1990).
Clinical Review
Ten studies are outlined in the following table, “Clinical
Studies on German Chamomile,” including a total of 8,668 participants. All but
one of the studies (Fidler et al., 1996)
demonstrated positive effects for indications including dermatological,
neurological, and respiratory conditions. Three studies (Fidler et al., 1996; Carl and Emrich, 1991; Nasemann, 1975)
focused on the the use of chamomile as a mouthwash for its astringent and
cooling effects, stomatitis, and mucositis (Fidler et al., 1996; Carl and Emrich, 1991; Nasemann, 1975). One stomatitis study did not
notice significant improvement (Fidler et al., 1996). Other dermatological studies included one
controlled, bilateral, comparative study investigating a chamomile cream
against inflammatory dermatoses (Aertgeerts et al.,
1985), and a DB study on using a chamomile extract to promote wound-healing
after dermabrasion (Glowania et al.,
1987). Other studies demonstrating positive results included inhalation of the
steam vapor of chamomile extract to treat respiratory tract conditions related
to the common cold (Saller et al.,
1990); inhalation of volatile oil to determine the effect of olfactory
stimulation on mood (Roberts and Williams, 1992); and oral ingestion of the
aqueous infusion to investigate cardiac effects after ventricular
catheterization (Gould et al.,
1973). In a study of 8,058 mothers in childbirth conducted over a period of
eight years, two essential oils, clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) and chamomile were shown to be effective in
alleviating pain during labor (Burns et al., 2000). A recent DB,PC study investigated the use of a chamomile
fluid extract and apple pectin combination product for treating young children
with acute, non-complicated diarrhea (de la Motte et al., 1997).
Branded Products
Diarrhoesan® Chamomile fluidextract: Dr. Loges
& Co. GmbH / Postfach 1262 / Schützenstrasse 5 / 21423 Winsen / Germany /
Tel.: +49-041-71-7070 / Fax: +49-041-71-7071-00 / Email: info@loges.com. Each
100 ml of solution contains 2.5 ml of chamomile fluidextract (1:1),eluent:
ethanol 55% and 3.2 g of apple pectin.
Kamillosan® Crème: VIATRIS GmbH & Co. KG / Weismüllerstrasse.,
45 / D-60314 Frankfurt/Main / Germany / Tel: +49-69-4001 2811 / Fax: +49-69-4001
2951 / Email: info@viatris.com / www.viatris.com (formerly known as ASTA Medica
AG). One gram cream contains 20 mg ethanolic dry extract (2.75:1) in a fatty ointment
base. The extract contains no less than 0.2 mg volatile oil and a minimum of 0.07
mg (-)-a-bisabolol.
Kamillosan® Konzentrat: VIATRIS GmbH & Co. KG. Hydroalcoholic
tincture extracted with 38.5% (m/m) ethanol; drug-to-extract ratio of approximately
1:4.0–4.5 (w/v), in 42.8% ethanol. Each 100 ml of tincture contains 150–300
mg essential oil; 150–300 mg apigenin-7-glucoside and 50 mg (-)-a-bisabolol.
Kamillosan® Liquidum: VIATRIS GmbH & Co. KG. Standardized hydroalcoholic
fluid extract; 150 mg of essential oil per 100 ml fluid extract containing a minimum
of 3 mg chamazulene and 50 mg a-bisabolol.
Kneipp® Kamillen-Konzentrat: Kneipp Werke
/105-107 Stonehurst Court / Northvale, NJ 07647 / U.S.A. / Tel: (201) 750-0600
/ Fax: (201) 750-2070 / www.kneipp.com. Hydroalcoholic fluid extract.
American equivalents, if any, are found in the Product Table
beginning on page 398.
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Clinical Studies on Chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.)
Oral/Gastrointestinal |
Author/Year |
Subject |
Design |
Duration |
Dosage |
Preparation |
Results/Conclusion |
Fidler et al., 1996 |
Stomatitis |
Phase III, DB, PC, R n=164 |
2 weeks |
30 drops extract in100 ml water as mouthwash 3x/day vs. placebo |
Kamillosan® Konzentrat, diluted in water |
Chamomile mouthwash administered in addition to cryotherapy did not significantly
alleviate 5 flourouracil (5-FU)-induced stomatitis (p=0.32). However, subset analysis
based on gender did reveal unexpected differential effects, suggesting that chamomile
might be beneficial for males but detrimental for females. This could not be explained
by reasons other than chance. |
Carl and Emrich, 1991 |
Stomatitis and mucositis |
U
n=98 |
Varying durations for different treatment groups |
Oral rinse during repeated cycles |
Kamillosan® Liquidum |
Chamomile oral rinse decreased stomatitis and was found to be beneficial in
the treatment of mucositis resulting from radiation and cancer chemotherapeutic
agents. The resolution of mucositis appeared to be accelerated by the chamomile
rinse. Prophylactic oral care appeared to modify oral environment favorably and
maintain tissue integrity. |
Nasemann, 1975 |
Astringent and cooling effect |
DB
n=36 |
18 months |
Mouth wash, 5–6x/day |
Kamillosan® |
With exception of patients with glossodynia, extract showed astringent and
cooling action. |
Dermatological |
Author/Year |
Subject |
Design |
Duration |
Dosage |
Preparation |
Results/Conclusion |
Glowania et al., 1987 |
Dermabrasion |
R, PC, DB
n=14
healthy males with abrasions of tattoos on the arms with Derma III equipment (1.5
mm depth) |
14 days |
Chamomile extract compresses for 1 hour, 3x/day until wounds are completely
dry |
Chamomile extract standardized to 3 mg chamazulene and 50 mg levomenol |
Objective parameters were used to evaluate epithelial and drying effect of
chamomile preparation applied topically to weeping wound area after dermabrasion
from tattoo removal. Chamomile extract significantly decreased weeping wound size,
and sped up healing time by enhancing drying of oozing wounds. |
Aertgeerts et al., 1985 |
Inflammatory dermatoses |
Cn, Cm, MC n=161 |
3–4 weeks |
Chamomile cream vs. 0.25% hydrocortisone, 0.75% fluocortin butyl ester, 5%
bufexamac |
Kamillosan® Crème |
Chamomile cream showed more or less equally effective therapeutic results
as hydrocortisone for treatment of inflammatory dermatoses. It proved superior
to the nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory agent 5% bufexamac as well as to 0.75%
fluocortin butyl ester. For treatment of neurodermatitis, chamomile cream was
therapeutically comparable to hydrocortisone and superior to other tested products. |
Other |
Author/Year |
Subject |
Design |
Duration |
Dosage |
Preparation |
Results/Conclusion |
de la Motte et al., 1997 |
Acute diarrhea in children |
P, DB, R, MC, PG, PC
n=79 children, 6 months to 5.5 years |
3 days |
1st dose 10 ml, followed by 5 ml/hour, up to 60 ml/day |
Diarrhoesan® Chamomile fluid extract (0.035 mg/g chamazulene and 0.5 mg/g
(-)-a-bisabolol) combined with apple pectin |
After 3 days of treatment, diarrhea in the pectin/chamomile group had ended significantly (p<0.05) more frequently than placebo. Pectin/chamomile reduced duration of diarrhea significantly (p< 0.05) by at least 5.2 hours. Parents documented subjects’ well-being in a diary twice daily and, compared to placebo,
a trend of continuous improvement was observed in the pectin/chamomile group. |
Roberts and Williams, 1992 |
Neurology, psychiatry |
PC
n=22 |
1 day |
1x exposure vs. placebo |
Chamomile flower volatile oil |
Patients were asked to visualize positive and negative phrases following olfactory
stimulation by chamomile oil or placebo. Chamomile oil significantly increased
latency for all images, and shifted mood ratings and frequency judgments in a
more positive direction, suggesting a possible mode of action. |
Saller et al., 1990 |
Respiratory |
PC, R
n=60 |
1 day |
Steam inhalation, 1x/5 hours |
Kneipp® Kamillen-Konzentrat, alcoholic fluidextract diluted in boiled water |
Steam inhalation, below a towel, with chamomile extract in hot water reduced
the severity of common cold symptoms in a pronounced and dose-dependent manner.
Onset of action occurred within 15 minutes and reached maximum effect between
30–120 minutes; then efficacy declined after 2–3 hours. |
Gould et al., 1973 |
Cardiovascular effects |
U
n=12
hospitalized patients |
1 day |
2 tea bags in 6 ounces boiled water, 1x |
Chamomile flower tea infusion (brand not stated) |
Significant increase in mean brachial artery pressure from 91 to 98 mmHg (p < 0.05).
No other significant hemodynamic changes were observed. Blood pressure and cardiac
output were measured prior to drinking tea and 30 minutes later. Average cardiac
index showed only slight decrease, and average stroke index was essentially unchanged.
10 of the 12 patients fell into deep sleep
10 minutes after ingestion, lasting until end of cardiac catheterization approximately
90 minutes. |
KEY: C – controlled, CC – case-control, CH – cohort, CI – confidence interval, Cm – comparison, CO – crossover, CS – cross-sectional, DB – double-blind, E – epidemiological, LC – longitudinal cohort, MA – meta-analysis, MC – multi-center, n – number of patients, O – open, OB – observational, OL – open label, OR – odds ratio, P – prospective, PB – patient-blind, PC – placebo-controlled, PG – parallel group, PS – pilot study, R – randomized, RC – reference-controlled, RCS – retrospective cross-sectional, RS - retrospective, S – surveillance, SB – single-blind, SC – single-center, U – uncontrolled, UP – unpublished, VC –
vehicle-controlled. |
Combination Product with Chamomile (Essential Oil)
Author/Year |
Subject |
Design |
Duration |
Dosage |
Preparation |
Results/Conclusion |
Burns et al., 2000 |
Pain during childbirth |
O
n=8,058 |
8 years |
Not stated |
10 essential oils, including chamomile |
The study found that aromatherapy with 2 of the tested essential oils, clary
sage and chamomile, reduced maternal anxiety, fear, and/or pain during labor.
The use of aromatherapy was found to reduce the use of systemic opioids in the
study center, from 6% in 1990 per woman to 0.4% in 1997. |
KEY: C – controlled, CC – case-control, CH – cohort, CI – confidence interval, Cm – comparison, CO – crossover, CS – cross-sectional, DB – double-blind, E – epidemiological, LC – longitudinal cohort, MA – meta-analysis, MC – multi-center, n – number of patients, O – open, OB – observational, OL – open label, OR – odds ratio, P – prospective, PB – patient-blind, PC – placebo-controlled, PG – parallel group, PS – pilot study, R – randomized, RC – reference-controlled, RCS – retrospective cross-sectional, RS - retrospective, S – surveillance, SB – single-blind, SC – single-center, U – uncontrolled, UP – unpublished, VC –
vehicle-controlled. |
|