Issue: 62 Page: 33-48
Devil's Club (Oplopanax horridus): An Ethnobotanical Review
by Trevor C. Lantz, Kristina Swerhun, Nancy J. Turner
HerbalGram. 2004; 62:33-48 American Botanical Council
Devil’s Club (Oplopanax horridus): An Ethnobotanical Review
Devil’s club (Oplopanax horridus (Sm.) Torr. & A. Gray ex. Miq., Araliaceae)
is probably the most important spiritual and medicinal plant to most indigenous
peoples who live within its range. Different parts of this plant are used by over
38 linguistic groups for over 34 categories of physical ailment, as well as many
spiritual applications. Devil’s club [syn. Echinopanax horridus (Sm.) Decne.
& Planch, Fatsia horrida (Sm.) Benth. & Hook, Panax horridum Sm.;
Riconophyllum horridum Pall.] is a common deciduous understory shrub occurring
in moist, but well drained, forested ecosystems from coastal Alaska southward
to central Oregon and eastward to the southwestern Yukon, the Canadian Rockies,
northwestern Alberta, Montana, and Idaho. There are also several disjunct populations
near northern Lake Superior in Michigan and Ontario. The stems of this shrub are
upright to decumbent and can reach heights exceeding 6 meters (~20 feet). The
leaves are large (up to 35 cm across [~14 inches]) and maple-shaped.
The
stems, petioles, and leaf veins of devil’s club are covered with a dense armor
of yellowish needle-like spines up to 2 cm (~0.5 inches) long, which can cause
severe skin irritation. The flowers are small and whitish, borne in terminal pyramidal
clusters, and ripen to shiny flattened, bright red berries. Devil’s club forms
large sprawling clones that expand laterally through the layering of decumbent
stems.1
A member of the family Araliaceae (which also contains the
ginsengs), devil’s club is related to a number of widely known medicinals
including Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng
C.A. Meyer), American ginseng (P. quinquefolius L.),
eleuthero (Eleutherococcus senticosus Maxim., formerly called Siberian ginseng), and small
spikenard (Aralia nudicaulis L.,
or sarsaparilla). Devil’s club is often cited as the most significant plant,
both medicinally and spiritually, to the indigenous peoples within its range.2-5
The first ethnographic record of devil’s club use dates back to 1842, when
Eduardo Blaschke, the chief physician for the Russian American Company,
reported the use of devil’s club ash as a treatment for sores amongst the
Tlingit.6 Subsequently, devil’s club has received widespread
documentation for its medicinal, spiritual, and technological uses in
ethnographies, ethnobotanies, medical journals, and historical records from
within (as well as outside) its geographical range. In a 1982 review, Turner
reported more than 30 categories of medicinal, spiritual, and technological
uses by peoples of over 25 different indigenous linguistic groups of western
North America.4 Phytochemical research has revealed that this plant
has antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial, and antimycobacterial properties, and
these are undoubtedly related to its widespread use in traditional medicine.7-11
Recent
commercial use of devil’s club seems to have developed in response primarily to
ethnographic records and the phytochemical research that these have inspired.
In most cases the use of devil’s club in the herbal and nutraceutical industries
parallels traditional uses described in ethnographic and ethnobotanical records.
Recently, however, devil’s club’s botanical relationship to the well-known medicinal
ginsengs (Panax ginseng, P. quinquefolius) has been used to increase its
commercial appeal. Thus, it is sometimes marketed under the misleading, and now
illegal in the United States, common names of “Alaskan ginseng,” “wild armored
Alaskan ginseng,”12 and “Pacific ginseng.”13 Such marketing
relies on purported phytochemical similarities between devil’s club and Panax
spp. Although largely unsubstantiated, presumably such claims are based on
the speculation that plants of the family Araliaceae may share similar chemical
constituents, a presumption that is not supported by current phytochemical research.
The prospect of increasing demand in the market has the
potential to increase the unregulated harvest of devil’s club. This is of
concern because this shrub is sensitive to over-harvesting.14 Since
devil’s club is extremely important culturally, commercialization also raises
concerns about the lack of recognition of and compensation for, the
intellectual property rights of indigenous peoples from Alaska to British
Columbia and Oregon.
The purpose of this paper is to clarify devil’s club’s
medicinal properties by summarizing reported traditional medicinal
applications, examining contemporary use by indigenous and non-indigenous
peoples, and reviewing recent phytochemical research. Intellectual property
rights and cultural and conservation issues associated with the
commercialization of this plant are also discussed.
Ethnobotanical Records of Traditional Use
A review of published and unpublished ethnographic sources reveals great
diversity in the uses of devil’s club among many indigenous groups over a wide
geographic area. These applications are summarized here in 34 broad categories
of medicinal use (Table 1), and eight categories of spiritual use (Table 2). The
indigenous peoples who use devil’s club include 38 linguistic groups from across
northwestern North America (Tables 1-2), representing nine language families.14
The region delineated by this cultural usage almost directly parallels the geographic
distribution of devil’s club (Figure 2) and underscores the cultural importance
of this plant across its range. In some areas devil’s club is used well outside
of its geographic range; the few areas where cultural use is not recorded from
within the area of its distribution appear to represent gaps in the ethnobotanical
documentation and not in actual usage.
Table 1: Summary of Medicinal Uses of Devil’s Club (Oplopanax horridus)
Medicinal Uses |
Cultural Linguistic Group (and References) |
Appetite Stimulant Infusion of inner bark. |
Nlaka’pamux (64); Secwepemc (65); Squamish (66) |
Arthritis / Rheumatism Infusion or decoction of inner bark,
pounded leaves and sometimes roots, inner bark used in bath/steam bath, inner
bark chewed, crushed root used as poultice, and whole stems used to beat rheumatic
limbs as counter-irritant. |
Alutiiq (67, 68, 69, 70); Carrier (71); Ditidaht (72, 73); Gitxsan (17, 74,
75); Haida (2, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81); Halkomelem (82); Hanaksiala (83); Makah
(84); Oweekeno (85); Nuu-chah-nulth (72); Stl’atl’imx (85); Nuxalk
(76, 77, 79); Sahaptin (86); Sechelt (72, 87, 88); Sekani (89); Squamish (66,
72); Stl’atl’imx (85, 90); Tlingit (2, 80); Tsimshian (80); Unspecified
(91) |
Birth Control Decoction of roots. |
Métis (92) |
Blood Purifier Decoction of inner bark. |
Carrier (73); Nlaka’pamux (64, 93) |
Broken Bone Decoction of inner bark. |
Alutiiq (70); Gitxsan (95); Haida (2) |
Cancer Infusion of inner bark. |
Alutiiq (70); Gitxsan (17); Haida (2; 81); Tlingit (2); Tsimshian (80) |
Childbirth / Menstruation Inner bark mashed and swallowed,
or decoction of inner bark taken as purgative to expel afterbirth, to start post-partum
menstrual flow, regulate menstruation, and for cramps. |
Alutiiq (94); Carrier (77, 101); Hanaksiala (83); Lushootseed (86); Makah
(86); Secwepemc (96); Tlingit (16) |
Diabetes Infusion or decoction of inner bark and sometimes
roots, both alone and in mixtures. |
Cree (92); Haida (81); Halkomelem (97); Heiltsuk (27); Metis (92); Nlaka’pamux
(64); Nuxalk (98); Sechelt (99); Secwepemc (65); Squamish (66); Stl’atl’imx
(85); Straits Salish (97, 100); Tsimshian (23) |
Diphtheria Infusion of roots applied externally. |
Sekani (89) |
Emetic / Purgative Decoction or infusion of inner bark prepared
in water or seal oil, both alone and in mixtures, roots chewed and the inner bark
sometimes swallowed. |
Alutiiq (68, 70); Carrier (3, 101); Eyak (3, 102); Gitxsan (79, 95); Haisla
(83); Haida (76); Makah (86); Nuxalk (77, 79, 98); Tlingit (3, 16, 103); Tsetsaut
(3); Unspecified (104); Wet’suwet’en (95) |
Fertility Unspecified. |
Unspecified (104) |
Fever Decoction of inner bark. |
Tanaina (105); Unspecified (104) |
Flu Infusion of inner bark, alone and in mixtures, and the
inner stem bark chewed. |
Alutiiq (68, 70); Gitxsan (17); Haida (80, 81); Nlaka’pamux (4, 64);
Tanaina (106); Tsimshian (80); Tlingit (16, 80); Wet’suwet’en (107) |
Gall Stones Infusion of inner bark. |
Haida (2); Tlingit (2) |
Haemorrhaging and Blood Disorders Infusion of inner bark,
alone and in mixture, and berries pounded into paste taken internally. |
Comox (108); Hanaksiala (83) |
Heart Disease Berries pounded into paste taken internally.
|
Alustiiq (70); Hanaksiala (83); Wet’suwet’en (107) |
Insanity Introduced into the system by beating with stems.
|
Haida (80); Tsimshian (80); Tlingit (80) |
Internal Infections Infusion of inner bark. |
Haida (80); Tanaina (106); Tsimshian (80); Tlingit (80); Unspecified (91) |
Laxative Infusion or decoction of inner bark prepared both
alone and in mixtures. |
Gitxsan (109); Haida (2, 80); Haisla (83); Hanaksiala (83) Heiltsuk (4); Kwakwaka’wakw
(110); Nlaka’pamux (93; 64); Nuxalk (77); Tanaina (105); Tlingit (2, 80,
103); Tsimshian (80, 111); Unspecified (91) |
Lice and Dandruff Pounded berries rubbed on hair and scalp.
|
Haida (78); Oweekeno (83) |
Lymph Trouble (Dropsy) Ash of inner bark. |
Alutiiq (94) |
Measles Decoction of inner bark. |
Halkomelem (72); Tlingit (106) |
Pain Relief, Analgesic Decoction of inner bark, inner stem
bark mixed with oil and eaten, dried inner bark laid into tooth cavity, steam
bath with inner bark. |
Alutiiq (67, 69); Gitxsan (75); Haida (2); Kwakwaka’wakw (110, 112,
113, 114); Nuxalk (98); Oweekeno (83); Tlingit (2); Tsimshian (2) |
Perfume, Baby Talc Unspecified. |
Makah (86) |
Pneumonia Decoction or infusion of inner bark, and inner
bark used in steam baths with a variety of additional plants. |
Alutiiq (68); Squamish (66); Tlingit (16) |
Respiratory Ailments, Coughs, Colds Decoctions and infusions
prepared from inner stem bark, whole stems and sometimes roots, inner bark also
chewed, used in sweat baths, and burned and dampened and worn around the neck.
|
Alutiiq (67, 70); Eyak (102); Gitxsan (17, 74); Haida (2, 80, 81); Halkomelem
(72); Hanaksiala (83); Okanagan (116); Oweekeno (83); Nlaka’pamux (4);Okanagan
(115); Sahaptin (86); Secwepemc (65); Squamish (66); Tagish (117); Tanaina (105);
Tlingit (2, 80); Tsimshian (80); Unspecified (5, 91, 104); Wet’suwet’en
(107) |
Skin Wash Infusion or decoction of roots used as a general
wash for acne, skin disease, dandruff, etc. |
Alutiiq (70); Comox (108); Gitxsan (109); Sechelt (72); Sekani (89); Tlingit
(16) |
Sores (Swellings, Cuts, Boils, Burns, and External Infections)
Inner bark, or infusion of, used externally as a poultice or wound dressing or
rubbed over sore, dried inner bark pulverized with pitch or burnt to ash and mixed
with oil or grease (sometimes salmonberries and dog feces) and applied externally,
berries pounded into a paste and applied externally, decoction of root applied
externally, and sliver of bark placed in wound to prevent infection. |
Alutiiq (67, 70, 94, 102); Carrier (71); Eyak (68); Gitxsan (17, 74, 109);
Haida (2, 3); Hanaksiala (83); Kwakwaka’wakw(113); Makah (84); Nlaka’pamux
(93); Nuxalk (98); Sechelt (99); Tanaina (105);Tlingit (2, 3, 6, 16, 103, 118);
Tsimshian (80); Unspecified (26, 91); Wet’suwet’en (74) |
Stomach Trouble / Pains, Ulcers Infusion or decoction of
inner bark or paste made from berries taken internally. |
Gitxsan (17); Haida (2, 75, 76, 77); Hanaksiala (83); Kwakwaka’wakw
(110, 113, 114); Nlaka’pamux (64, 93); Nuxalk (76, 77, 79); Squamish (66);
Tanaina (105); Tlingit (2); Unspecified (26, 91) |
Tonic Infusion or decoction of inner bark or sometimes roots,
inner bark chewed, and bark ash infused. |
Ditidaht (73); Gitxsan (17, 74); Haida (2, 77); Halkomelem (72); Nlaka’pamux
(64, 93); Nisga’a (75); Nuu-chah-nulth (119, 120); Oweekeno (83); Tlingit
(2, 16); Sechelt (99); Unspecified (91, 104); Wet’suwet’en (107) |
Unspecified Use, General Sickness Unspecified. |
Alutiiq (67); Carrier (121); Ktunaxa (122); Gitxsan (75); Nlaka’pamux
(4); Nuxalk (88); Oweekeno (83); Quileute (123); Sechelt (99); Tlingit (124);
Tsimshian (3) |
Venereal Disease Decoction prepared from inner bark and whole
stems both alone and in mixtures with a variety of other plants. |
Gitxsan (95); Haida (80); Tlingit (16, 80, 103); Tsimshian (80); Unspecified
(91) |
Vision / Blindness Infusion of inner bark taken internally,
inner bark applied externally with pitch, and decoction used asan eyewash to reverse
the effects of cataracts. |
Haida (80); Hanaksiala (83); Tsimshian (80); Tlingit (80) |
Weight Loss Infusion of de-spined stems. |
Nlaka’pamux (4, 64) |
Among all of the traditional medicinal uses of devil’s club
(Table 1), its most widespread is for the treatment of external and internal
infections, including tuberculosis. The efficacy of many of the treatments is
undoubtedly related to devil’s club’s significant antibacterial,7,11 antimycobacterial
(active against bacteria in the genus Mycobacterium),10,11 antifungal,8,11 and
antiviral properties.9,15 Devil’s club is also commonly used by many
cultural groups to treat arthritis, rheumatism, respiratory ailments, and as an
emetic and purgative. It is also used as an aid in childbirth (post-partum),
for internal hemorrhaging, as an analgesic, to treat stomach and digestive
tract ailments, broken bones, fever, dandruff, lice, headaches, and as a
treatment for cancer. Several parts of the shrub, including inner bark, inner
bark ash, whole stems, roots, berries, and leaves, are used in a variety of
ways to effect these treatments. However, the most common type of preparation
is as an infusion or decoction of the stem inner bark.
In addition to ethnographic accounts of medicinal uses, there are also numerous
sources that describe spiritual applications of devil’s club. These include purification
and cleansing; protection against supernatural entities, epidemics and evil influences;
acquisition of luck; to combat witchcraft; as ceremonial and protective face paint;
and in rituals by shamans and others to attain supernatural powers (Table 2).
Two of the most widespread spiritual uses are bathing with a devil’s club inner
bark solution for personal protection and purification, and its use, particularly
the spiny or de-spined aerial stems, as an amulet for protection against a variety
of external influences (Table 2). External and internal cleansing involving the
use of devil’s club “was, and is, of paramount importance” to many of the cultural
groups throughout devil’s club’s range.4 The inner stem bark of devil’s
club has also often been used in solution to wash down fishing boats, fishnets,
and to purify a house after an illness or death, and, as charcoal, to prepare
protective face paint for ceremonial dancers (Table 2). John Thomas explained
that amongst the Ditidaht, and many other neighboring groups, devil’s club is
considered sacred and “along with red ochre paint is considered to be a link between
the ordinary, or profane world, and the supernatural, or spirit world.”4
Although it is useful for the purposes of this paper, an explicit division between
medicinal and spiritual uses of devil’s club does not reflect traditional conceptions
of health and healing4,16,17 and most “medicinal” applications of devil’s
club are inextricably linked to “spiritual” applications of the plant, particularly
its use for cleansing and purification. Devil’s club also figures significantly
in the traditional narratives of many cultural groups throughout its range.14
Table 2: Summary of Spiritual Uses of Devil’s Club (Oplopanax horridus)
Spiritual Uses |
Cultural Linguistic Group (and References) |
End Bad Weather Unspecified |
Eyak (102); Tlingit (16) |
Luck Wood retained for luck, bark used in bath, and rubbed
on body, and fresh bark chewed. |
Eyak (102); Gitxsan (17, 109); Haida (125, 126, 127); Haisla (83); Hanaksiala
(83); Tlingit (16); Tsimshian (83, 128); Wet’suwet’en (74) |
Paint Charcoal, sometimes mixed with bear grease used for
used as medium for paint mixed with berries. |
Ditidaht (73); Haisla (83); Hanaksiala (83); Nuu-chah-nulth (119,face paint
used in ceremonies and for protection. Bark also 120); Secwepemc (65); Squamish
(66); Straits Salish (100) |
Personal Purification Infusion of inner bark and inner bark
used in bath. |
Eyak (102); Gitxsan (17, 74, 109); Haida (125, 126); Haisla (83);Hanaksiala
(83); Tlingit (3, 118); Tsimshian (4, 83); Wet’suwet’en (74, 107); |
Protection Bark and stems used as an amulet, charcoal Aused
for protective face paint, bark used in bath for protection, hoop of stem steeped
through for protection against supernatural entities, epidemics, evil influences,
love charms and shamans’ spells, and inner bark sewn into pouch and worn
around the neck as an amulet. |
lutiiq (70); Ditidaht (73); Eyak (102); Gitxsan (21); Haida (78); Haisla (83);
Hanaksiala (83); Nisga’a (75); Nuu-chah-nulth (119,120); Nuxalk (79); Sekani
(89); Tagish (117); Tlingit (17); Tsimshian (83) |
Purification of House Inner bark burned as a fumigant, placed
in pouches, under pillows, or used with other plants to prepare an infusion to
purify a house, often following a death. |
Eyak (102); Gitxsan (17, 75); Haisla (83); Hanaksiala (83); Nuxalk (88); Sekani
(89); Wet’suwet’en (74, 107) |
Shamanic Infusion of inner bark or roots, and roots chewed.
|
Blackfoot (129); Eyak (102); Haisla (83); Hanaksiala (83); Oweekeno (83);
Sekani (89); Tlingit (16, 124); Tsimshian (83) |
Witchcraft Prophylactic against witchcraft. |
Alutiiq (130); Hanaksiala (83); Tlingit (16, 118) |
Contemporary Use in the Herb and Dietary Supplement Industry
Many of devil’s club’s uses in herbal medicine parallel its
most commonly documented traditional uses (Table 1). Overall though, the modern
commercial applications of devil’s club in the North American herbal market are
for treating a smaller number of health problems and lack the spiritual
practices associated with traditional use. Western herbalists report that the
roots of devil’s club (and to a lesser extent the inner stem bark) are a strong
respiratory stimulant and expectorant18,19 and recommend their use
for rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune conditions,18,20 as
well as to treat eczema, sores, and a number of internal and external
infections.21 Devil’s club is also commonly recommended for the
treatment of type II adult onset diabetes,18,22 a use of devil’s
club that is also extensive in indigenous communities. However, since there is
considerable risk and uncertainty associated with such therapy, such
recommendations should be viewed with caution.21 In one notable
case, devil’s club is recommended as a pancreatic tonic that is purported to
help lower blood sugar levels by increasing the efficiency of insulin
production in the pancreas.22 In this and other similar cases it is
unclear if the reasoning given is based on the clinical evidence, which is
equivocal and conflicting.21 Early clinical research on devil’s
club, inspired by its widespread use by indigenous peoples for adult diabetes,
reported that a white precipitate isolated from extracts of devil’s club “root
bark” exhibited a hypoglycemic effect in lab hares.23 Subsequently,
in experiments involving two human subjects, Justice2 presented some
additional evidence to support the hypoglycemic activity of devil’s club’s root
and stem bark. However, additional work by Piccoli et al.,24 Sturr
et al.,25 and Thommasen et al.26 using extracts from
“root bark,” and research by MacDermot27 using a decoction of stems,
provide data that do not substantiate the hypoglycemic activity reported
previously. Since devil’s club is still widely, and increasingly, used as a
treatment for late onset type II diabetes and is listed in a recent review of
antidiabetic plants,28 additional research and more rigorous
clinical trials are required to validate and characterize or to disprove
hypoglycemic properties in devil’s club.
Notable commercial applications of devil’s club that depart
from traditional use include marketing strategies portraying devil’s club as
“Pacific ginseng,” “Alaskan ginseng,” or “wild armored Alaskan ginseng.”12,13
In these cases, and on occasion when devil’s club is promoted under its
standardized common name, products are marketed on the basis of purported
adaptogenic and tonic properties. Suggestions of its use as an alternative to
ginseng parallel those of eleuthero (Eleutherococcus senticosus Maxim., Araliaceae), formerly called “Siberian
ginseng.” Devil’s club is increasingly used as a ginseng substitute in marketed
herbal formulas and is considered to have significant potential in U.S. and
Asian markets in this role.12 Although devil’s club is used as a
tonic in some traditional medicinal applications (Table 1), its properties as
an adaptogen are by no means its most distinct. The belief of some herbalists
that devil’s club can be readily substituted for ginseng, with similar effects
and benefits, has not been demonstrated empirically. Indeed, devil’s club’s
emetic and purgative properties are often what some first-time users highlight
when describing their experience with the plant (possibly due to ingestion of
relatively high doses). Furthermore, any pharmacological and therapeutic
similarities devil’s club shares with ginseng are not well documented, and a
number of authors stress that these plants should not be used as if they were
the same.19,21 Additional applications that are unconnected to
traditional indigenous use and appear to have no empirical basis include
treatment for hyperthyroidism, for impotence, and as a phytoestrogen.21
Another notable divergence between traditional and
contemporary commercial applications of devil’s club relates to the plant parts
used. Most of the devil’s club products currently available commercially,
including devil’s club teas, tinctures, capsules, and formulas that contain
devil’s club, contain “root bark” as the main ingredient. “Root bark” is also
one of the most common plant parts sold as a crude drug. Unlike the traditional
use of devil’s club, which primarily involves inner bark of the aerial stems
(Table 1),14 the commercial use of devil’s club “root bark” seems to
be driven by perceived superior potency of roots. Like the marketing of devil’s
club under alternate common names that equate it with ginseng, the sale of
devil’s club “root bark” appears also to be an attempt to highlight devil’s
club’s relationship to ginseng, since the root of the latter is used
medicinally. Any therapeutic advantage of the roots over the stem bark, like
the marketing of devil’s club as a ginseng substitute, appears largely
unsubstantiated by research, much of which has been conducted using stem inner
bark. Furthermore, the commercial harvesting of devil’s club roots in
preference to stems has some important conservation implications. Devil’s club
is a shallow rooting, long-lived, clonal shrub that expands vegetatively
through the layering of horizontal, or decumbent stems, and rarely by seedling.1
Like many medicinal plants, devil’s club is not currently cultivated in any
significant quantity and is almost exclusively wild-harvested. Although devil’s
club can be wild-crafted sustainably,14,29 the large-scale harvest
of its interconnected clonal fragments may have an adverse impact on the
persistence of populations.
Phytochemistry and Biological Activity
Phytochemical information on the active constituents of
devil’s club is somewhat confounded by varying taxonomic treatments of the
genus Oplopanax. Most authorities treat Oplopanax
as a genus made up of three species: O.
elatus Nakai in Russia and Korea;30 O.
japonicus (Nakai) Nakai in Japan;31
and O. horridus in North America.32
Throughout this paper we have adopted this treatment and refer to O.
horridus in this strict sense when
employing the common name devil’s club. However, there are other authorities
that treat all three as subspecies of O. horridus.33,34 Since most research has been
conducted on either the Russian or Japanese species (or subspecies) of Oplopanax, with little published descriptive phytochemical
work on devil’s club, it is unclear if many of the active constituents commonly
cited as components of devil’s club are actually present in North American
devil’s club, or only in the Russian and Japanese species. For example, Moore18
lists nerolidol, torreyol, dodinene, busnesol, dodecenol, cadene, and
cerdrol as constituents of devil’s club. However, since this research was
conducted on Oplopanax elatus [O.
horridus ssp. elatus]35 it is unclear if it is applicable to
the North American populations of O. horridus [O. horridus ssp. horridus].
Another
group of compounds also commonly cited as constituents of devil’s club (O.
horridus) are saponins (triterpenoid glycosides).36 Although a
number of triterpenoids have been described from O. elatus and O. japonicus,37-44
to date none have been described from North American devil’s club. Although it
is likely that North American devil’s club does contain some of the same compounds
as these close relatives, presently the only published report to support this
describes glycosidal principles of a possible saponin-like nature.25
There is also no evidence that devil’s club contains a specific group of saponins
known as the ginsenosides as is often claimed and used to assert its
adaptogenic properties and therapeutic similarity to ginseng.18 Additionally,
none of the saponins described in devil’s club relatives O. elatus and
O. japonicus are ginsenosides (saponins with dammarane type triterpenoid aglycones45).
According to Zhuravlev and Kokyada,46 O. elatus and a larger
group of Russian Araliaceae species (including E. senticosus<
do not contain ginsenosides, but rather saponins that have aromatic
triterpenoid aglycones.
The earliest, and some of the only, published descriptive
phytochemical work that has been conducted on the North American devil’s club
is by Kariyone and Morotomi,47 who described a sesquiterpene
(equinopanacene) and a sesquiterpene alcohol (equinopanacol) in O. horridus. In more recent phytochemical investigations on O.
horridus, Bloxton et al.48 reported
a number of sterols and four sesquiterpenes, one of which (spatulenol) is novel
to the genus. Kobaisy et al.11 described two novel and three
previously described polyenes, one of which (oplopandiol) has recently been
synthesized.18 These acetylenes all display significant
antimycobacterial and antifungal activity49 and most are active
against common bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans. These compounds are also active against Mycobacterium
tuberculosis and Mycobacterium
avium, both of which can cause significant
clinical tuberculosis, particularly virulent in immuno-compromised hosts, AIDS
patients being especially vulnerable. Notably, these pathogens are also
responsible for the epidemic status of tuberculosis in Canada’s indigenous
population.50 Since many strains of M. tuberculosis and M. avium are also resistant to the most commonly used antimycobacterial drugs,
there is considerable interest in the potential of devil’s club in tuberculosis
therapy. Extracts of devil’s club inner bark also partially inhibit a
respiratory syncytial virus.9
In other research, immunologist George Luciuk has claimed
that devil’s club has anti-microbial effects on upper and lower respiratory
tract infections15. In related investigations on the Russian
species, Me et al.35 reported that essential oils derived from O.
elatus show antifungal activity against
five pathogenic species: Microsporum gypseum, M. lanosun, Trichophyton gypseum, T. purpureatum, and Epidermophyton floccosum. Aihua et al.51 also report that O. elatus shows anti-mycotic action against a number of common
pathogenic fungi. Additionally, a sesquiterpene, a sesquiterpene alcohol, and a
sesquiterpene ketone have been isolated from >O. japonicus; a
derivative of the latter is used in Japan in commercial preparations to treat
coughs and colds.52
Cultural Concerns and Intellectual Property Rights
In 1992, signatories to the United Nations Convention on
Biological Diversity (Biodiversity Convention) formally recognized the
intellectual property rights of the Earth’s indigenous and traditional peoples
in Articles 1 and 8j by calling for fair and equitable sharing of any benefits
resulting from the sustainable use of biodiversity and traditional and local
knowledge.53,54 As of September 2003, 187 countries were party to
the convention. In the case of devil’s club and many other culturally important
plants, it is clear that commercial medicinal applications and research
interest in pharmaceutical applications are based directly on traditional
knowledge and use drawn mainly from the ethnobotanical record. Consequently
there is a clear conflict between current commercialization efforts and
articles 1 and 8j of the Convention.55
Since
Canada is a signatory to the Biodiversity Convention, it is legally and morally
bound to uphold all 40 articles. However, despite the obvious conflict between
the commercialization of devil’s club in the absence of compensation, and Articles
1 and 8j of the Biodiversity Convention, there are no effective legal means to
ensure that the compensation called for in the Convention is provided or negotiated.
The concept of copyright and patent protection fundamental to Western intellectual
property rights law is designed to protect corporations and individual entrepreneurs
and, thus far, has been inadequate to address intellectual property rights that
relate to knowledge held in common by one or several cultural groups.56
In the case of many traditionally used medicinal plants for which detailed ethnobotanical
information has been recorded and published, protection of intellectual property
rights is particularly problematic. Under current law, traditional knowledge that
has been published in the ethnographic literature is considered within the public
domain, and consequently as information that is ineligible for conventional intellectual
property rights protection. Concern about the lack of protection for knowledge
that is now a part of the public domain is described in more detail in the Report
of the Royal Commission for Aboriginal Peoples.57
Since the United States and four other nations58
have not ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity, it is also unlikely
that the principles expressed in articles 1 and 8j will be used successfully to
protect intellectual property rights of indigenous peoples in the U.S.
Additional difficulties, discussed in more detail by Posey and Dutfield,55
Mann,59 and Bannister,60 include conflicts between
indigenous world-views regarding ownership of knowledge and the monopolistic
and exclusionary axioms inherent in the Western concept of intellectual
property rights.55, 57
The summary of traditional uses of devil’s club recorded in the ethnobotanical
record that is presented here (Figure 2; Tables 1-2) makes the origins of this
knowledge unequivocal. Thus, despite the failure of current legal mechanisms to
compensate the original users of this plant, current practice is clearly at odds
with the ethical framework embodied in the Biodiversity Convention and numerous
other international agreements. Are governments where devil’s club is harvested
and sold commercially ethically and/or legally obligated to ensure that consultation
and compensation regarding commercialization is undertaken? Moreover, what are
the ethical obligations of harvesters, wholesalers, users, practitioners, journalists,
and researchers involved in the commercial use of devil’s club and other medicines
whose commercial applications are rooted in traditional knowledge?
Figure 1. Geographic distribution of devil’s club Oplopanax horridus
Figure 2. Geographic distribution of devil’s club (dark yellow on the
upper map) in relation to the area of cultural use and linguistic recognition
(pale yellow on the lower map) in Western North America. (Figure modified from
62.)
The bulk of devil’s club use in the herbal industry
parallels its commonly described traditional uses. However, in many instances it is unlikely that
the commercialization of these uses would be considered culturally appropriate.61
Without consultation it is doubtful that commercial exploitation of a plant of
such enormous medicinal and spiritual importance to indigenous peoples would be
supported by its original users. Like many culturally important medicinal
plants, devil’s club is thought by many Indigenous Peoples to lose its healing
efficacy if its use is publicized too widely. One of the mostly striking
examples of potentially inappropriate commercialization of devil’s club is the
web-based sale of ready-made devil’s club ‘spirit paint.’62 Given
the spiritual importance and sacredness of devil’s club and red ochre paint,
its sale would likely be seen by many indigenous people as an inappropriate
imitation of indigenous knowledge.14,60
Conclusions
Devil’s club, a highly significant species for indigenous
peoples of western North America, is currently being harvested and marketed as
a ginseng-like herbal medicine. Although it is related to ginseng, there is
little conclusive research to demonstrate that it has ginseng’s adaptogenic and
immune-enhancing properties. There is however, extensive phytochemical evidence
that supports devil’s club’s widespread use to treat internal and external
infections, in particular its potential to control Mycobacterium spp. It is also commonly reported that devil’s club
has hypoglycemic properties and as such, it is used by indigenous and
non-indigenous peoples alike to treat type II late onset diabetes. However, its
efficacy as a treatment for this condition has not been clinically
demonstrated. Furthermore, commercial development of devil’s club has not been
in keeping with the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity and a number of
additional international agreements. To date, little or no consultation has
been undertaken with the indigenous peoples from whom knowledge of devil’s
club’s properties has been derived, and no provisions have been made for
compensation or benefit sharing with the original users of devil’s club.
Additionally, indigenous peoples and others have raised concerns that
commercial harvesting of devil’s club, especially the roots, will compromise
its ability to persist in some localities within its range. Before the
commercial harvest and marketing of devil’s club is expanded any further, it is
imperative that researchers and promoters work in consultation with the
indigenous users of this culturally significant shrub to determine (1)
appropriate (e.g., ethical) harvesting methods and applications, (2) active
pharmacological compounds, and (3) modes of production that are sustainable and
that conform to the requirements of the Biodiversity Convention and other
international protocols. Until these steps have been accomplished, the
commercialization of devil’s club is at best problematic.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of the
following individuals to the development of this paper: Geraldine Allen, Sean
Barnes, Arvid Charlie, Don Eastman, Amanda Howe, Allison McCutcheon, Stephanie
Mills, Karen Robin, Bill White, and Nan Vance. Three anonymous reviewers also
provided helpful feedback on the manuscript. Financial support for this project
has been provided by the National Science and Engineering Research Council, PGS
A Scholarship (220697) to Trevor Lantz; Global Forest Research, Field Research
Grant (GF-18-2000) to Trevor Lantz and Nancy Turner; to Haida Artist Giitsxaa
(Ron Wilson) who contributed the painting of Devil’s Club Man; and the Canadian
Forest Service, First Nations Forestry Program Grant (00-1-188) to the
Hupacasath First Nation.
Authors’ Biography
Trevor Lantz is pursuing his Ph.D. in the Centre for
Applied Conservation Research at the University of British Columbia. He
completed his B.Sc. in Botany in 1998 at the University of Alberta, and his
masters, which focused on the ecology and ethnobotany of devil’s club, in 2001
at the University of Victoria.
Kristina Swerhun was
born in Scarborough, Ontario and moved to British Columbia in 1996 where she
completed her B.Sc. in Biology in 2000. She has worked as a field biologist
throughout the Pacific Northwest and now lives in Whistler, BC.
Nancy Turner is an ethnobotanist and professor in the
School of Environmental Studies, University of Victoria. For over 30 years she
has worked with indigenous elders and plant specialists in British Columbia,
documenting traditional botanical knowledge.
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