Issue: 69 Page: 40-50
JimsonWeed: History, Perceptions, Traditional Uses, and Potential Therapeutic Benefits of the Genus Datura
by Kofi Busia, Fiona Heckels
HerbalGram. 2006; 69:40-50 American Botanical Council
JimsonWeed: History, Perceptions, Traditional Uses, and Potential Therapeutic Benefits of the Genus Datura
|
Illustration
by Christy Krames, MA, CMI
Christy Krames is a Certified Medical Illustrator living and working in
Austin, Texas. She received her Master's degree in Medical Illustration
in 1981 from UT Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas. Examples of her
medical and biological artwork may be seen at www.kramestudios.com. |
For many years, native peoples and tribes in various parts of the world have
taken intoxicating plant preparations in religious rituals, divination, witchcraft,
and healing ceremonies.1 "Western" interest in hallucinogenic plants
or drugs has focused mainly on either the potential for psychotherapeutic applications
or their use to induce "controlled psychosis" to understand psychotic disorders
such as schizophrenia. Studies on ritual psychoactive plants could provide further
insights into their proper use or misuse, improve clinical management of intoxication
with herbal "highs," and perhaps also help in the discovery of therapeutically
beneficial chemical compounds. The solanaceous plants such as those from the
genus Datura have been used in both traditional and modern medicine as treatments
for mental illness, tumors, infections, and even as aphrodisiacs. This paper
examines attitudes toward Datura's hallucinogenic effects, its potential benefits,
and describes traditional, therapeutic, and recreational uses in Europe and
other cultures. Research on mechanisms is also described to highlight the scientific
rationale for Datura's use among indigenous peoples.
Introduction
For centuries various species of Datura have been revered as sacred visionary plants by
virtually all peoples who experience them. Datura is a member of the family Solanaceae (deadly
nightshade family), which also includes edible plants like tomatoes, potatoes,
eggplant, and peppers (i.e., fruits of the genus Capsicum). The genus is widely distributed in the warm and
tropical regions of the world and consists of potent hallucinogenic plants such
as D. inoxia, D. stramonium, D. metel, D. wrightii, D. ceratocaula,
D. quercifolia, D. tatula, D. discolor, and
D. fastuosa.2 (The
so-called "tree Daturas," which are significant in various South American
shamanistic practices and ethnomedicine, formerly belonged to this genus but
now have been reclassified into the genus Brugmanisa.)
The name Datura comes
from the early Sanskrit dustura3
or dahatura, meaning
"divine inebriation."4 The plants usually grow as herbaceous annuals
or perennials and are strikingly characterised by beautifully colored (white to
pinkish) trumpet-like flowers, which typically exude a fragrant odor
nocturnally. They also bear walnut-sized seed capsules covered with spiky
thorns, hence the English common name "thorn apple" and the German Stechapfel.3,4,5
From the years 1330 to 1700, solanaceous plants were thought
of as "diabolic incarnations."6 Hence Datura became known by names such as "devil's apple," "mad
apple," and "devil's work."5 This is reflected over 300 years later
in an English newspaper headline, which read thus: "Hooked! On the Devil's
Weed."7
The name "Jimson weed," the preferred common name
established by the herb industry in the United States,8 is a
corruption of "Jamestown weed" in reference to the experience of Captain John
Smith and his band of English colonizers in their eventually unsuccessful
attempt to establish a colony at what was called Jamestown in the Virginia
colony in 1607. British soldiers were reportedly given boiled Jamestown weed
(Jimson weed) for inclusion in a salad, which the soldiers readily ate and then
experienced several days of erratic behavior. Several contradictory accounts
are given, but the most reliable appears to be that the soldiers may have been
served this accidentally.9 (See sidebar on page 50 for details.)
The origins of Datura
are shrouded in uncertainty due to the species' wide distribution, but Mexico
and Central America appear to have the largest concentration. This has led to
suggestions that it was probably introduced into Europe by the explorers of the
New World. Others believe that Datura originated from the Caspian Sea, spreading south to Africa and east to
Asia, from where it was brought to Europe by travelers during the Middle-Ages.10
It is probable that the Roma (aka "gypsies") brought Datura from India to Europe in the early 15th century,2
although Gerard claims to have been the distributor of the first seeds of D.
stramonium (which he refers to as D.
inoxia) in England.11 Datura's usage was subsequently integrated into the
sophisticated cultural belief systems associated with "witchcraft."2
Whatever the origin, Datura appears to have played an important role as a "culture plant,"
particularly in Asia and the New World, for many years. Throughout these parts
of the world, the species was particularly valued for its ability to induce
visionary dreams, to help in foretelling the future, and to reveal the causes
of disease and misfortune. Records indicate that the Aztecs knew the genus Datura. A particular species, which was then referred to as
toloache, was used as an enema or
suppository for pain relief in initiation rituals; it was also administered as
a hallucinogen. Another species, D. ceratocaula, called atlinan by the Aztecs, was so revered that only the priests were allowed to
use it. It supposedly enabled them to hold counsel with the gods and to
foretell the future. In addition, it was used to find stolen objects and even
to make prognosis of black magic associated illness. Datura
ceratocaula was also used in an ointment to
treat cracked soles, sores, bruises, pustules, as plasters for ulcers, and as a
poultice for rheumatic pains.12, 13
Western Attitudes towards Datura: Pleasure and Intoxication
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Jimson
weed Datura stramonium L. from Köhler’s
Medizinal-Pflanzen in naturgetreuen Abbildungen mit kurz erläuterndem
Texte : Atlas zur Pharmacopoea germanica, Volume 1 of 3 (originally
published in 1887). 1995-2006 Missouri Botanical Garden http://www.illustratedgarden.org
|
In Medieval Europe and England, solanaceous plants such as Datura were
utilized for their mind-altering properties.14 It appears that in
European and other native religions, witches and shamans originally held the
sacred knowledge required to utilize these powerful plants safely. They were
used in pagan rituals and as components of the infamous flying "green ointments"
in witchcraft practices.5 A Renaissance record indicates that these
applications were applied to the armpits and delicate mucous membranes of the
vagina with a broomstick or like-shaped implement.15,16 Andres Laguna
(1499-1560), a physician to Pope Julius III, investigated these controversial
religious practices and showed that the green ointments containing Datura
took the women on "journeys" by producing dream-like states, rather than
on physical flights as was widely believed.17,18 Existing evidence
suggests that during the Spanish Inquisition, use of Datura could lead
to persecution for witchcraft and sorcery.6 The executioners of the
Inquisition recorded numerous accounts of "journeys to the Sabbath" during which
the accused "danced with the devil."10 The prosecution reportedly
believed the accounts of the "witches" and subsequently may have condemned them
to death on the basis of forced confession. But given that these accounts were
usually obtained by severe torture, it is difficult to ascertain their veracity.
It is now apparent that the experiences of "flying through the sky, dancing
with the devil, and partaking in orgiastic feasts and rituals"6 were
connected to tropane alkaloid-induced hallucinations.19,20
The growth of European monotheism, instigated by the
Inquisition, resulted in the eradication of pagan beliefs and practices and the
persecution of those who practised them.6 The Catholic Church
condemned even the research on "natural magic," so that the likes of Giovan
Battista Della Porta, who had worked with natural healers and recorded
folklores, was threatened for recording these beliefs and practices.
Witch-hunts during the Renaissance period further marginalized "folk" groups,
leading to widespread persecution and an even greater skepticism towards
solanaceous plants and their use.15
It is debatable whether some of the so-called pagan rituals
of the medieval era were merely recreational, "diabolically" intended, or
designed for some well-considered medical purpose. Piomelli and Pollio's
account of Cardano and Della Porta's lamiarum unguentum seem to suggest that at least the inclusion of some
excipients (e.g., soot) in this preparation, probably had an indirect
pharmacological rationale.15 It has been observed that on topical
application, tropane alkaloids are slowly absorbed through the skin and that
absorption is enhanced by inducing inflammation, creating abrasions, or by
using a substance that would create an alkaline environment. It seems therefore
that the addition of the soot to the lamiarum unguentum produced the alkalinity needed for diffusion into
the blood stream.15 The records also show that an aqueous extract of
the toxic Aconitum spp. (family Ranunculaceae) was among the plant
ingredients contained in the salve. Piomelli and Pollio15 suggest
that the soot's alkalinity could have affected the hydrolytic cleavage of the
toxic constituent aconitine to the less harmful derivative aconine, thereby
reducing the potential toxicity of the salve.
Interestingly, the complexity of these preparations has been
compared with the shamanic use of hallucinogens in Mesoamerica and the Amazon
basin.14 It could be inferred that the intentions for use in this
context were of a more complex magico-spiritual or even pharmacological nature.
Most current reports, if they include any notes on preparation, describe
ingestion of simple infusions or smoking and do not reflect the ethnobotanical
sophistication of the "green ointments."
It is probable that Datura was used recreationally up to the witch-hunts of the 17th century at a
time when alcohol was expensive.14 During the Middle Ages, the
practice of combining Datura
seeds with alcoholic drinks was popularized in Europe. In Catholic Bavaria,
henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.,
Solanaceae) was labeled a "crazy-making thing" and the practice of mixing it
with beer was banned in 1507.21
The use of Datura in
a modern context peaked in the 1960s and 70s with an upsurge in interest of
pagan and shamanic practices.22 Linked with adolescents and the
growth in "youth culture" during this period of social transformation, Datura and other psychotropics quickly became associated
with rebelliousness and danger.23 There were several reports of its
intoxicating effects24 and consequently Datura use became synonymous with negative terms such as
"overdose" and "drug addicts."7>
Although the American National Drug Intelligence Center
(ANDIC) recognized in the 1990s that there had been a dramatic increase in
incidents of Datura exposure nationwide,
encouraging awareness of its "dangers" was seen as key to preventing Datura from ever becoming a significant "threat."25
Attitudes outside Western Society
Datura was more
revered in societies whose medical paradigm differed from the Western
biomedical system in Europe. References to the sacred uses of Datura (specifically D. metel) exist in ancient records from Eurasia (e.g., China
and India). For example, in India, the sadhus and yogis
smoked the leaves and seeds mixed with ganja (Cannabis indica L., Cannabinaceae). The plant was highly revered as a
powerful aphrodisiac.16,17 The Indians mixed the powdered seeds with
butter and ingested it orally for impotence or applied it topically to
invigorate the male genitalia. The leaves were also smoked to relieve asthma16
and were one of the primary ingredients in an anti-asthmatic product.
In China a Taoist legend refers to the plant as the flower
of one of the pole stars. The Chinese customarily mixed Datura with cannabis and wine, and legend had it that if the
person gathering the plant had a pleasant disposition at the time, this would
be reflected in the behavior of all who drank from it, but if the gatherer had
been sad, so would be all who drank the wine.13 Datura was also used to treat colds and nervous conditions.17
In parts of South America, Datura was taken as a tea or smoked to induce visions.
Apart from its sacred significance, it was also regarded as one of the most
ancient healing herbs. It is thought that the ancient Peruvian healers and
shamans employed Datura's
hallucinogenic properties when performing rituals or medical operations (e.g.,
skull trepanations—the process of cutting a hole in the skull).26 In
what is present day Chile, the Auruks still use Datura as a shamanic plant and as medicine in much the same
way as their ancestors. The leaves of the species D. ferox are brewed and given to unruly children to "teach
the children a good measure of respect."12
Among the Chumash people of California, D. metel played an important role in their initiation
rituals. To them Datura was the
single most important medicinal plant and was taken in a ritualistic framework.27
According to Baker, reasons for taking Datura included, aiding the acquisition of "dream helpers,"
ascertaining the cause or cure of an illness, or gaining a specific skill, such
as fishing. They used Datura to
empower them to manipulate the "supernatural forces" that control nature and
influence human activity. All young males and females of puberty age were given
extracts of the root to invoke some form of spiritual protection throughout
their earthly and non-earthly endeavours. A person experienced in Datura would be present during intoxication and would teach
"moral values" in the period after inebriation.27 Similar accounts
can be found from across South and Central America, including Diegueno
shamanism, the Algonquin tribe of North America, and the Qichaus of Peru.13,28
The effects and the dosage were considered according to both pre-session
preparation and environmental factors. As in many other tribes, Chumash
preparations included abstinence from certain foods and sexual activity for up
to 21 days before ingestion. The degree of adherence to these rules
corresponded with the amount of power a person wanted to acquire.
The Chumash also used Datura as an anaesthetic for "bone setting," to treat wounds, bruises, and
hemorrhoids, and to "freshen the blood." In some cases the plant was used to
induce a quasi-comatose state in a person experiencing severe trauma, in the
belief that the psychoactive properties of the plant would desensitize the pain
receptors to reduce stress in the patient, thereby promoting speedy healing.27
Among the Navajo, the dried roots were chewed in ceremonies as a febrifuge (to
stop fever), while a leaf infusion was used as a vulnerary (wound-healing
agent) "to wash the wounds of castration in sheep."29 "Possession
inebriation" began in Africa before being introduced to the Mediterranean and
Indonesian islands. It "invaded" America with the slave trade and became known
as voodoo, candomble, or mandinga. Datura was
one of the main plants used to induce this kind of inebriation, causing
raptures of "bodily frenzy" in which conscious awareness disappears.3>
Not only are these uses outside the realms of general
understanding in Western society, they also incorporate a different attitude
toward the plant itself. The long period of preparation before ingestion of the
plant may be for physical protection or as a symbol of respect for the forces
that were to be encountered (psychological preparation) or a combination of the
two. Additionally, it is worthy of note that the participant was permitted the
space and time to prepare; therefore the ritual did not isolate them from the
social group. Communication took place between the participant and the group,
suggesting a social "dialogue." In other words, the plant was used in these
instances to achieve culturally desirable altered states of consciousness.
Neurotransmitters and Conscious Perception
|
Jimson weed
Datura stramonium L. from Plantarum selectarum icones pictae
/ editae a Nicolao Meerburg Volume 1 of 1 (originally published in
1798). ©1995-2006 Missouri Botanical Garden http://www.illustratedgarden.org
|
Attempts have been made in recent years to explain a possible physical correlation
between altered states of consciousness and activity in the central nervous
system (CNS), specifically the brain.30 It is thought that different
structures of the brain are associated with different levels of consciousness
and that conscious perception occurs only when the associative cortex is active.
This type of perception is involved with identity of self, in the planning of
movement, orientation, and imagination.31,32 Consciousness gives
a sense of reality to stimuli and hence if mechanisms that assemble this are
disrupted, the notion of the self may be dissolved.33 This could
be likened to the state that often occurs during dreaming.
Experience of consciousness is highly influenced by the
combination of connections between the thalamus and the cortex, which are
modulated at the relevant regions by neurotransmitters.31
Consequently, interference with the transmission of neurotransmitters across
the synapses will affect the conscious experience of an individual.
One of the major neuromodulatory systems involved in
relaying information between these important brain structures is the
cholinergic system. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) has been
postulated as a major correlate to consciousness; the cholinergic neural
pathway, specifically from the basal forebrain to the cortex and thalamus, is
thought to be an essential afferent regulatory system to the cerebral cortex.32
Tropane Alkaloids and Anticholinergic Activity
The tropane alkaloids present in Datura include atropine, hyoscyamine, and hyoscine
(scopolamine). Research suggests that there is little difference in the
quantities of these alkaloids found across species.34 Although
hyoscyamine has been found to be the major alkaloid, with atropine and hyoscine
being considerably less,34 the principal CNS effects are created by
hyoscine, which can cross the blood brain barrier more efficiently.35
The tropane alkaloids are thought to act as competitive
inhibitors of ACh via the muscarinic receptors at the autonomic ganglia and at
the myoneural junction.23,36 During the 1970s, the action of
scopolamine in reducing inhibitory impulses was investigated for use as a
possible "truth drug."9,12 It is thought that solanaceous alkaloids
trigger hallucinations through blocking cholinergic activity. ACh, an excitatory
neurotransmitter, is widely distributed in the brain and is important for the
sleep-wake-cycle.37 By blocking cholinergic activity, the alkaloids
cause intrusions of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep into the waking state.32
It has been shown by electroencephalography (EEG) studies
that humans have the potential to be consciously attending during REM sleep.32
Similar wave patterns to those of REM were recorded when brain activity was
measured in 10 cases of Datura
intoxication.18 EEG recordings immediately after hospitalization
revealed slow wave activity and bizarre rhythmical bursts of high-voltage sharp
wave activity in 6 of the 10 patients, indicating that Datura may lower the threshold for dream and hypnagogic
(i.e., that state between being awake and falling asleep) imagery.18
Dreams have long been associated with elements of the
unconscious mind.38,39 There are numerous reports in which people
experiencing hallucination have gained great insight that may not have been
attained otherwise. One such case was that of a 74-year-old male who became
intoxicated after having received atropine sulphate for bradycardia (slow heart
beat). He experienced visual hallucinations, which revealed detailed knowledge
about an area of his field (business) which he claimed to have had no previous
knowledge.19
Hallucinations in degenerative brain disorders are thought
to be due to alterations in consciousness and are associated with regional
deficits in the cholinergic system. Those occurring in some diseases, such as
dementia with Lewy bodies, coupled with disturbances in REM sleep have been
likened to experiences following solanaceous plant ingestion.32
(Lewy bodies disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by distinct
loss of ability to process, learn, and remember information, with fluctuating
confusion, visual hallucinations, fantasy, and significant parkinsonism.) Datura intoxication could therefore represent a useful
model for understanding brain organization, memory, and emotional behavior.40
Hyoscine in the form of scopolamine hydrobromide in
combination with morphine was formerly used to produce "twilight sleep" and
amnesia in obstetrics, a practice which has since ceased because of the
associated risk.9
A study that
sought to investigate the visual eyes-closed hallucinations associated with the
toxicity of another muscarinic ACh receptor, atropine, may provide an
alternative hypothesis for the hallucinogenic effect of Datura. It was observed from the study that the visual
eyes-closed hallucinations observed resembled hypnagogic hallucinations and may
therefore originate in the brain stem.18
It is thought that there is a correlation between the number
of receptor sites (and their affinity to the psychotropic substance) and the
type of hallucination experienced by an individual as well as the idiosyncratic
responses observed.32
Therapeutic Potential of Datura
In spite of its reputation as a witch's herb, Datura was commonly used for medicinal purposes even in Europe.
Datura cigarettes have been prescribed to asthma sufferers for the
anti-spasmodic/bronchodilating effect of atropine on the respiratory system.41
Both atropine and scopolamine have interesting
pharmacological actions. Atropine suppresses nicotinergic activity (i.e.,
activity of agents that act to enhance the action of ACh at nicotinic receptor
sites) more than cholinergic activity (i.e., activity of agents that directly
mimic the action of ACh at receptor sites or block acetylcholinesterase). Therefore,
atropine is a parasympatholytic (inhibits the physiological effects generated
by stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system). It is mainly used as a
mydriatic (dilates the pupils) before surgery, although a newer drug,
tropocamide, is now the drug of choice due to atropine's slow degradation.
Atropine is also used in the treatment of bradycardia (slow heart beat). It
reduces bronchial and salivary secretions and also serves as an antidote for
poisoning by organophosphate insecticides and nerves.9 Like
atropine, scopolamine is also used as an antidote for the toxic effects of
phosphate insecticides and "nerve gases."9,12 Both
scopolamine/hyoscine and atropine have been used to treat motion sickness.42,43
The mechanism is as yet unclear, but it is thought to involve inhibition of
vestibular input to the CNS, thereby inhibiting the vomiting reflex.43
In addition, hyoscine was
formerly used together with morphine just before childbirth to produce
"twilight sleep and amnesia"9,12 whereby the expectant mother
remains semi-conscious but forgets the pain associated with delivery
afterwards. Besides the unpleasant adverse effects of the hyoscine-morphine
combination, it was also found that pain was not really reduced. The side
effects included neonatal depression, drug transfer via the placenta to the
fetus, which caused respiratory distress, teratogenesis, and in rare cases,
death of the mother and/or child. Hyoscine
has also been used as an anaesthetic and, more dubiously, in narcoanalysis (as
a "truth drug"). In the 1950s, various intelligence agencies such as the US
Central Intelligence Agency investigated the effectiveness of scopolamine as a
"truth drug," but the possibility that findings could be distorted by the
compound's hallucinogenic side effects resulted in the project being abandoned.9
The tropane alkaloids also cause paralysis of the muscles of
light accommodation (cycloplegia) and pupil dilation (mydriasis).12
One of the first medical investigations to uncover the
therapeutic potential of Datura in
mental health was undertaken in 1762 by Anton Stock. His investigations led
him to report that Datura had the
ability to make "unsound minds sane and sane minds mad."43 In 1886,
August Sohrt of Torty is said to have utilized Datura isolates for the "mentally ill," possibly on the
recommendation of one of his teachers who claimed that hyoscine was an
extremely valuable medicine for psychiatric treatment.21 It has been
suggested that the period following the comatose state induced by Datura may be ideal for psychotherapeutic efforts,27
comparable with the teaching of "moral values" by the Chumash tribe after
inebriation.27 However, it has been shown that small doses of some Datura
constituents such as atropine may impair
learning and memory functions in dementia.44
Set and Setting
The effects of Datura depend not only on the type of species and dose
used, but also on the "set and setting" of the user. An interesting study in
which two volunteers were given "scientifically calculated" doses of henbane to
investigate whether the archetypal mental image of "the witch" as a "flying
hag" can be explained by the use of solanaceous plants was conducted in
comfortable and attractive surroundings. The volunteers had previously been
introduced to the research panel to create some degree of familiarity. One of
the volunteers had previous experience with these plants and subsequently
reported visions of a dream-like state in which he was conscious and over which
he had control once he allowed his "body to relax and drift off over
landscapes." In contrast, the less experienced volunteer had vivid dreams and
flashes in his peripheral vision but reported no "flight" or conscious
awareness during the dreaming state.20,45>
In another study the patient experienced hallucinations for
12 days and was able to describe his experiences to his attendants, including
his wife. This could be considered a relatively long period of time to be in a
hallucinatory state—yet there was no reported anxiety or fear19 —probably
a reflection of the impact of a secure environment and the opportunity to
express his experiences as they occurred. This could also be a reflection of
the complete estrangement from reality that these agents induce.
These studies suggest, as is the case with the administration
of other psychotropic agents, that if there is the potential to utilize Datura as a therapeutic tool, the context (e.g.,
surroundings, attitudes, and the social climate) in which it is taken may
influence the results.
Symptoms of Datura Intoxication
Many of the cases of Datura intoxication reported in the 1960s and 1970s
occurred in hospitals and often featured quite severe symptoms.21,46,47
These cases may have involved people ingesting large (potentially toxic) amounts
of the alkaloids with virtually little knowledge of the potential effects and
dosages.
Symptoms such as increased heart rate, drying up of the
mucous membranes, dry throat and cramps, restlessness, giddiness,
disorientation, constipation, and confusion have been observed. Uncontrolled talking
or laughing, memory disturbances, and repetitive acts, as well as
hallucinations and elated fantasies are also common features. These effects are
often followed by a deep prolonged sleep during which sexually inclined dreams
and hallucinations can be experienced.23,48 On "recovery" from this
state of altered consciousness, a characteristic "hang over" and amnesia are
felt.
In 1968, DiGiacomo reported the symptoms presented in Table
1 as having occurred in four cases of Datura intoxication in teenagers.47
Table 1. Central and peripheral effects of anticholinergic syndrome induced by Datura stramonium intoxication in 4 cases. |
Central nervous system effects
(begins 30-60 minutes after ingestion) |
Peripheral effects |
Confusion
Disorientation
Ataxia slurred speech
Fluctuating lucidity and hyperactive agitated state
Staring into space
Labile state (of laughter and crying)
Sensitivity to peripheral activity
Misidentification of people
Auditory hallucinations (voices of close friends)
Visual hallucinations (beetles or insects) |
Red appearance
Warm, dry skin and mucous membranes
Dysphasia (due to mucosal dryness)
Elevated body temperature (for 8 to 12 hours)
Tachycardia (in 3 patients)
Pupillary dilation with poor reaction to light
Blurred vision |
In Table 2, Gowdy46 provides a more
representative picture in a review of 212 cases of D. stramonium intoxication (mentioning both seed pod and ingestion
of asthma powder containing dried Datura).
Table 2. Symptoms of Datura stramonium intoxication in 212 cases |
Symptom |
No. of people |
Hallucinations |
99 |
Disorientation |
45 |
Dilated pupils |
36 |
Dryness of skin and mucous membranes |
32 |
Ataxia |
31 |
Hyperactivity or combativeness |
29 |
Amnesia |
21 |
Fever |
20 |
Rapid pulse |
18 |
Flush |
13 |
Paranoia |
10 |
Anxiety |
8 |
Blood pressure elevated |
2 |
In his review, Gowdy46 points out that 99 out of
the 212 cases actually experienced hallucination. Since this was the expressed
intention by most of the inebriated, nearly half achieved what they had set out
to do and only a reported 8 out of 212 experienced anxiety. Gowdy also states
that negative or biased reporting of symptoms and the omission of positive
effects or terminology could be because reports of amnesia, anxiety, and
paranoia would inevitably discourage abuse of these preparations.
In some of these cases, behavior comparable to that of
"possession inebriation" was described here as "violent" or "aggressive" (Table
2 describes as hyperactivity or combativeness). Similarly, what might be deemed
"hallucination" in orthodox medical terms may in another context be referred to
as a "vision."
Although the outcome of Datura intoxication is said to be favorable and "treatment" best confined to
protective measures, prolonged use of scopolamine may result in withdrawal
symptoms including dizziness, nausea, vomiting, headache, and disorientation.43
Conclusion
|
Jimson
weed Datura stramonium L. from Medical botany : containing
systematic and general descriptions, with plates, of all the medicinal plants,
indigenous and exotic, comprehended in the catalogues of the materia medica,
as published by the Royal Colleges of Physicians of London and Edinburgh
: accompanied with a circumstantial detail of their medicinal effects, and
of the diseases in which they have been most successfully employed by
William Woodville Volume 2 of 4 (originally published in 1792). ©1995-2006
Missouri Botanical Garden http://www.illustratedgarden.org |
It is evident that contemporary attitudes toward hallucination have influenced
the general perception of Datura and that the socially-driven bias toward
the plant may have diminished interest in its therapeutic potential. It appears
that in societies in which the use of Datura is an integral part of the
socio-cultural and religious belief systems, there is emphasis on personal growth,
preparation, and healing. Moreover, the risks (both physical and psychosocial)
involved in the ingestion of Datura— while appearing manifold—may in
part be a product of socially driven perceptions. In these societies, the "hardships"
undergone during intoxication may be considered worth enduring and are socially
supported48 as opposed to Western societies where a type of social
isolation is often imposed on those who partake in such activities, (e.g., "drug
addicts"). Professional hechiceros (Native American medicine men), for
example, were persecuted by the church for using Datura for purposes
of "witchcraft,"13 paralleling the action taken in Europe and England
during the 1960s and 70s.
A review of the potential benefits and uses of this plant
species outside Western societies suggests that the negative publicity that is
often given to it may be undeserved. The mechanisms proposed so far suggest
that the species has therapeutic benefits that can be utilized to further the
understanding of hallucination. This therefore calls for new research that
views hallucination in a positive light and extends outside the confines of culturally
determined bias, that is, in the right professional setting. There may be a
need to learn from societies in which the plant is still utilized in order to
fully understand its therapeutic potential. However, experiences may not be
directly transferable as most research is bound up in cultural mores.
Moreover, research must move away from the emphasis on
generating awareness of dangers (which may be seen as instilling fear into
people) toward understanding of the experience of hallucination. Further studies
could provide the missing link in the current understanding of these plants,
including keys to the more religious or spiritual aspects, and those
differences that personality and preconceived ideas may bring to the
experience.
Kofi Busia, PhD, was until August 2005 a Senior Lecturer in Herbal Medicine
at Middlesex University in London where he taught Herbal Pharmacy, Pharmacognosy,
and Herbal Pharmacology. He is currently a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty Science
of the University of Ghana and Resident Practitioner of the St Luke Natural
Health Clinic in Tema, Ghana. He is a chartered chemist, medical scientist,
and medical herbalist. He has researched and written widely on topical issues
in health, particularly with regard to the use of medicinal plants in healthcare.
Dr. Busia may be contacted by telephone (00233242128799) begin_of_the_skype_highlighting FREE (00233242128799)end_of_the_skype_highlighting and e-mail (kbusia@ug.edu.gh/
or Kofi_Busia@hotmail.com).
Fiona Heckles is a newly-graduated herbal medicine student from Middlesex University
in London. She may be contacted by telephone (01992587021/07830195745) and e-mail
(ellowsun@yahoo.co.uk).
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Jimson weed—A Jamestown Story
In 1676, British soldiers were sent to
stop the Rebellion of Bacon, a protest led by a resident of Jamestown,
Nathaniel Bacon, against policies of the governor of Virginia. The soldiers
failed in their mission because of the hallucinogenic properties of the
Jamestown weed (Jimson weed), which was boiled for inclusion in a salad the
soldiers readily ate. Robert Beverly describes their resulting behavior in The
History and Present State of Virginia
(1705): "...some of the soldiers sent thither to quell the rebillion of Bacon
(1676); and some of them ate plentifully of it, the effect of which was a very
pleasant comedy, for they turned natural fools upon it for several days: one
would blow up a feather in the air; another would dart straws at it with much
fury; and another, stark naked, was sitting up in a corner like a monkey,
grinning and making mows at them; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his
companions, and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than any in
a Dutch droll.
In this frantic condition
they were confined, lest they should, in their folly, destroy themselves -
though it was observed that all their actions were full of innocence and good
nature. Indeed they were not very cleanly; for they would have wallowed in
their own excrements, if they had not been prevented. A thousand such simple
tricks they played, and after 11 days returned themselves again, not
remembering anything that had passed."
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